Category: Programming

Problem Formulation: Given a Python set. How to convert it to a tuple? And how to convert the tuple back to a set?

There are three main ways:

• Method 1: To convert a Python set to a tuple, use the tuple(my_set) function.
• Method 2: To convert a Python tuple to a set, use the set(my_tuple) function.
• Method 3: To convert a Python tuple of mutable elements to a set, use the expression set(tuple(x) for x in my_tuple) to avoid a TypeError.

I’ll also give you a bonus method 4 that shows you what to do to retain the ordering information when converting a tuple to a set—so keep reading!

Method 1: Convert Set to Tuple with tuple()

To convert a set to a tuple, pass the set into the tuple() function. This is a built-in Python function, so you don’t need to import or install any library to use it. The return value is a new tuple from the values in the set.

Here’s an example where you convert the set {1, 2, 3} to a tuple (1, 2, 3):

my_set = {1, 2, 3}
my_tuple = tuple(my_set)
print(my_tuple)
# (1, 2, 3)

By the way, here’s an explainer video on this function:

Method 2: Convert Tuple to Set with set()

To convert a tuple to a set, pass the tuple into the set() function. This is a built-in Python function, so you don’t need to import or install any library. The return value is a new set from the values in the tuple.

Here’s an example where you convert the tuple (1, 2, 3) to a set {1, 2, 3}:

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)
my_set = set(my_tuple)
print(my_set)
# {1, 2, 3}

Problem: However, the conversion process from a tuple to set doesn’t always work because if you try to convert a tuple of mutable values, Python will raise the TypeError: unhashable type!

Read on to learn more about this problem—and how to resolve it easily:

Method 3: Convert Tuple to Set with Set Comprehension

A Python set is an unordered collection of unique immutable elements. Each element must define explicitly or implicitly the __hash__() dunder method, i.e., must be hashable.

If you attempt to convert a tuple of mutable elements (e.g., lists) to a set, Python will raise an error such as the TypeError: unhashable type: 'list':

my_tuple = ([1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6])
my_set = set(my_tuple)
# TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

In this case, you can use set comprehension to convert each inner tuple element to an immutable type. For example, the expression set(tuple(x) for x in my_tuple) converts each inner list to a tuple. The result is a set of immutable tuples.

Here’s the solution to this problem in a minimal code example:

my_tuple = ([1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6])
my_set = set(tuple(x) for x in my_tuple)
print(my_set)
# {(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)}

The final “bonus” section introduces another elegant way to retain the ordering information in a set:

Bonus Method 4: Enumerate Elements

Sometimes, you want to associate each set or tuple element with a specific numerical “index” value, i.e., a unique integer identifier. The enumerate() method to the rescue!

• Use tuple(enumerate(my_set)) to convert a set to an enumerated tuple.
• Use set(enumerate(my_tuple)) to convert a tuple to an enumerated set.

The result is the respective container data structure with (identifier, value) tuples:

my_set = {'Alice', 'Bob', 'Carl'} my_tuple = tuple(enumerate(my_set))
print(my_tuple)
# ((0, 'Carl'), (1, 'Bob'), (2, 'Alice')) my_set = set(enumerate(('Alice', 'Bob', 'Carl')))
print(my_set)
# {(2, 'Carl'), (0, 'Alice'), (1, 'Bob')}

Especially in the case where you convert a tuple to a set, this makes a lot of sense because you can retain the information on the ordering of elements that would be otherwise lost after converting to a set.

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Thanks for reading the whole article, my friend! You can join us here (we have cheat sheets too):

Python Longest String in NumPy Array

To find the longest string in a given NumPy array, say arr, you can use the max(arr, key=len) function that determines the maximum by comparing the length of the array elements using the len() function as a key for comparison.

import numpy as np arr = np.array(['Alice', 'Bob', 'Carl'])
print(max(arr, key=len))
# Alice

You can find more about the powerful max() function in our detailed blog tutorial:

Recommended Tutorial: Python Maximum Function

Python Length of Longest String in NumPy Array

To find the length of the longest string in a NumPy array arr, use the max(arr, key=len) function to obtain the string with the maximum length and then pass this max string into the len() function to obtain the number of characters of the max string.

len(max(arr, key=len))

Here’s a more detailed code example of a simple 1D NumPy Array:

import numpy as np arr = np.array(['Alice', 'Bob', 'Carl']) # Print Longest String:
print(max(arr, key=len))
# Alice # Print Length of Longest String
print(len(max(arr, key=len)))
# 5

Get Longest String from NumPy Axis (2D, Column or Row)

To get the longest string from a certain NumPy array axis (e.g., row or column), first use simple NumPy slicing and indexing to get that axis (e.g., arr[0, :] to get the first row) and pass it into the max() function with the key argument set to the length function like so: max(arr[0, :], key=len).

Here’s an example to get the longest string of the first row of a 2D array:

import numpy as np arr = np.array([['Alice', 'Bob', 'Carl'], ['Ann', 'Zoe', 'Leonard']]) print(max(arr[0, :], key=len))
# Alice

Here’s an example to get the longest string of the third column of a 2D array:

print(max(arr[:, 2], key=len))
# Leonard

You get the idea.

If you want to get the longest string from the whole NumPy array, not only from a column or row or axis, first flatten it and then pass the flattened array into the max() function using the key=len argument.

Recommended Tutorial: How to Flatten a NumPy Array?

Summary: You can combine images represented in the form of Numpy arrays using the concatenate function of the Numpy library as np.concatenate((numpydata_1, numpydata_2), axis=1). This combines the images horizontally. Use syntax: np.concatenate((numpydata_1, numpydata_2), axis=0) to combine the images vertically.

Problem Formulation

Consider you have two images represented as Numpy arrays of pixels. How will you combine the two images represented in the form of Numpy pixel arrays?

Combining two images that are in the form of Numpy arrays will create a new Numpy array having pixels that will represent a new combined image formed by either concatenating the two images horizontally or vertically. Let’s understand this with the help of an example:

Given: Let’s say we have two different images as given below (Both images have similar dimensions) –

When you convert them to Numpy arrays this is how you can represent the two images:

numpydata_1

numpydata_2

[[[184 186 201] [184 186 201] [184 187 202] … [174 189 218] [174 189 218] [173 188 217]] [[184 186 201] [184 186 201] [184 187 202] … [174 189 218] [173 188 217] [173 188 217]] [[183 186 203] [183 186 203] [184 187 204] … [173 188 217] [173 188 217] [172 187 216]] … [[ 43 64 55] [ 45 66 57] [ 48 69 60] … [ 63 84 77] [ 64 83 77] [ 64 83 77]] [[ 49 70 61] [ 50 71 62] [ 53 73 64] … [ 58 84 73] [ 60 83 73] [ 61 84 74]] [[ 53 74 65] [ 52 73 64] [ 56 73 65] … [ 56 84 72] [ 57 83 72] [ 57 83 72]]]

[[[255 255 255] [255 255 255] [255 255 255] … [242 245 252] [240 243 250] [241 244 251]] [[255 255 255] [255 255 255] [255 255 255] … [242 245 252] [241 244 251] [241 244 251]] [[255 255 255] [255 255 255] [255 255 255] … [243 246 253] [243 246 253] [241 244 251]] … [[115 152 144] [111 151 142] [ 96 142 131] … [ 72 108 106] [ 73 109 107] [ 77 113 111]] [[ 75 118 108] [ 79 125 114] [ 82 132 120] … [ 69 104 100] [ 69 104 100] [ 71 106 102]] [[ 42 90 78] [ 47 97 85] [ 64 116 103] … [ 65 97 94] [ 60 92 89] [ 64 96 93]]]

Challenge: Combine the two images – (i) horizontally (ii) vertically

Expected Output:

Horizontal Combination

Vertical Combination

[[[184 186 201] [184 186 201] [184 187 202] … [242 245 252] [240 243 250] [241 244 251]] [[184 186 201] [184 186 201] [184 187 202] … [242 245 252] [241 244 251] [241 244 251]] [[183 186 203] [183 186 203] [184 187 204] … [243 246 253] [243 246 253] [241 244 251]] … [[ 43 64 55] [ 45 66 57] [ 48 69 60] … [ 72 108 106] [ 73 109 107] [ 77 113 111]] [[ 49 70 61] [ 50 71 62] [ 53 73 64] … [ 69 104 100] [ 69 104 100] [ 71 106 102]] [[ 53 74 65] [ 52 73 64] [ 56 73 65] … [ 65 97 94] [ 60 92 89] [ 64 96 93]]]

[[[184 186 201] [184 186 201] [184 187 202] … [174 189 218] [174 189 218] [173 188 217]] [[184 186 201] [184 186 201] [184 187 202] … [174 189 218] [173 188 217] [173 188 217]] [[183 186 203] [183 186 203] [184 187 204] … [173 188 217] [173 188 217] [172 187 216]] … [[115 152 144] [111 151 142] [ 96 142 131] … [ 72 108 106] [ 73 109 107] [ 77 113 111]] [[ 75 118 108] [ 79 125 114] [ 82 132 120] … [ 69 104 100] [ 69 104 100] [ 71 106 102]] [[ 42 90 78] [ 47 97 85] [ 64 116 103] … [ 65 97 94] [ 60 92 89] [ 64 96 93]]]

So, are you up for the challenge? Well! If it looks daunting – don’t worry. This tutorial will guide you through the techniques to solve the programming challenge. So, without further delay let us dive into the solution.

Prerequisite: To understand how the solutions to follow work it is essential to understand – “How to concatenate two Numpy arrays in Python.”

NumPy’s concatenate() method joins a sequence of arrays along an existing axis. The first couple of comma-separated array arguments are joined. If you use the axis argument, you can specify along which axis the arrays should be joined. For example, np.concatenate(a, b, axis=0) joins arrays along the first axis and np.concatenate(a, b, axis=None) joins the flattened arrays.

To learn more about concatenating arrays in Python, here’s a wonderful tutorial that will guide you through numerous methods of doing so: How to Concatenate Two NumPy Arrays?

Combine Images “Horizontally” with Numpy

Approach: The concatenate() method of the Numpy library allows you combine matrices of different images along different axes. To combine the two image arrays horizontally, you must specify the axis=1.

Code: Please go through the comments mentioned in the script in order to understand how each line of code works.

from PIL import Image
import numpy as np
# Reading the given images img_1 = Image.open('img_1.JPG')
img_2 = Image.open('img_2.JPG')
# Converting the two images into Numpy Arrays
numpydata_1 = np.asarray(img_1)
numpydata_2 = np.asarray(img_2)
# Combining the two images horizontally
horizontal = np.concatenate((numpydata_1, numpydata_2), axis=1)
# Display the horizontally combined image as a Numpy Array
print(horizontal)
# converting the combined image in the Numpy Array form to an image format
data = Image.fromarray(horizontal)
# Saving the combined image
data.save('combined_pic.png')

Output:

[[[184 186 201] [184 186 201] [184 187 202] ... [242 245 252] [240 243 250] [241 244 251]] [[184 186 201] [184 186 201] [184 187 202] ... [242 245 252] [241 244 251] [241 244 251]] [[183 186 203] [183 186 203] [184 187 204] ... [243 246 253] [243 246 253] [241 244 251]] ... [[ 43 64 55] [ 45 66 57] [ 48 69 60] ... [ 72 108 106] [ 73 109 107] [ 77 113 111]] [[ 49 70 61] [ 50 71 62] [ 53 73 64] ... [ 69 104 100] [ 69 104 100] [ 71 106 102]] [[ 53 74 65] [ 52 73 64] [ 56 73 65] ... [ 65 97 94] [ 60 92 89] [ 64 96 93]]]

Here’s how the horizontally combined image looks like when saved to a file:

Wonderful! Isn’t it?

Combine Images “Vertically” with Numpy

In the previous solution, we combined the images horizontally. In this soution you will learn how to combine two images represented in the form of Numpy arrays vertically.

Approach: The idea is quite similar to the previous solution with the only difference in the axis parameter of the concatenate() method. To combine the two image arrays vertically, you must specify the axis=0.

Code:

from PIL import Image
import numpy as np
# Reading the given images
img_1 = Image.open('img_1.JPG')
img_2 = Image.open('img_2.JPG')
# Converting the two images into Numpy Arrays
numpydata_1 = np.asarray(img_1)
numpydata_2 = np.asarray(img_2)
# Combining the two images horizontally
vertical = np.concatenate((numpydata_1, numpydata_2), axis=0)
# Display the vertically combined image as a Numpy Array
print(vertical)
# converting the combined image in the Numpy Array form to an image format
data = Image.fromarray(vertical)
# Saving the combined image
data.save('combined_pic.png')

Output:

[[[184 186 201] [184 186 201] [184 187 202] ... [174 189 218] [174 189 218] [173 188 217]] [[184 186 201] [184 186 201] [184 187 202] ... [174 189 218] [173 188 217] [173 188 217]] [[183 186 203] [183 186 203] [184 187 204] ... [173 188 217] [173 188 217] [172 187 216]] ... [[115 152 144] [111 151 142] [ 96 142 131] ... [ 72 108 106] [ 73 109 107] [ 77 113 111]] [[ 75 118 108] [ 79 125 114] [ 82 132 120] ... [ 69 104 100] [ 69 104 100] [ 71 106 102]] [[ 42 90 78] [ 47 97 85] [ 64 116 103] ... [ 65 97 94] [ 60 92 89] [ 64 96 93]]]

Here’s how the horizontally combined image looks like when saved to a file:

Hurrah! We have successfully combined the two images vertically.

Exercises

Before we wrap this tutorial, here’s a set of challenges to further enhance your knowledge.

Challenge 1: Consider that you have been given an image. How will you convert this image to a Numpy array?

Given Image

Solution:

from PIL import Image
from numpy import asarray
img = Image.open('img.png')
img_to_array = asarray(img)
print(img_to_array)

Challenge 2: Consider that you have two images of different dimensions. How will you combine the two images horizontally using OpenCV?

Given Images:

Solution:

import cv2
import numpy as np
img_1 = cv2.imread('Imgage_1.png')
img_2 = cv2.imread('Image_2.png')
h1, w1 = img_1.shape[:2]
h2, w2 = img_2.shape[:2]
img_3 = np.zeros((max(h1, h2), w1 + w2, 3), dtype=np.uint8)
img_3[:, :] = (255, 255, 255)
img_3[:h1, :w1, :3] = img_1
img_3[:h2, w1:w1 + w2, :3] = img_2
cv2.imwrite('Img_3.png', img_3)

Output:

Want to learn about OpenCV? Here’s an amazing tutorial to get you started with OpenCV – Python OpenCV Image Processing.

Conclusion

Phew! That was some coding challenge! I hope you can now successfully combine images given as Numpy arrays in both dimensions – horizontally as well as vertically. With that we come to the end of this tutorial. Please subscribe and stay tuned for more interesting tutorials and solutions in the future.

Happy coding!

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This article continues on the Solidity Smart Contract Examples series, which implements a simple, but the useful process of safe remote purchase.

Here, we’re walking through an example of a blind auction (docs).

• We’ll first lay out the entire smart contract example without the comments for readability and development purposes.
• Then we’ll dissect it part by part, analyze it and explain it.
• Following this path, we’ll get a hands-on experience with smart contracts, as well as good practices in coding, understanding, and debugging smart contracts.

Smart Contract – Safe Remote Purchase

// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0
pragma solidity ^0.8.4;
contract Purchase { uint public value; address payable public seller; address payable public buyer; enum State { Created, Locked, Release, Inactive } State public state; modifier condition(bool condition_) { require(condition_); _; } error OnlyBuyer(); error OnlySeller(); error InvalidState(); error ValueNotEven(); modifier onlyBuyer() { if (msg.sender != buyer) revert OnlyBuyer(); _; } modifier onlySeller() { if (msg.sender != seller) revert OnlySeller(); _; } modifier inState(State state_) { if (state != state_) revert InvalidState(); _; } event Aborted(); event PurchaseConfirmed(); event ItemReceived(); event SellerRefunded(); constructor() payable { seller = payable(msg.sender); value = msg.value / 2; if ((2 * value) != msg.value) revert ValueNotEven(); } function abort() external onlySeller inState(State.Created) { emit Aborted(); state = State.Inactive; seller.transfer(address(this).balance); } function confirmPurchase() external inState(State.Created) condition(msg.value == (2 * value)) payable { emit PurchaseConfirmed(); buyer = payable(msg.sender); state = State.Locked; } function confirmReceived() external onlyBuyer inState(State.Locked) { emit ItemReceived(); state = State.Release; buyer.transfer(value); } function refundSeller() external onlySeller inState(State.Release) { emit SellerRefunded(); state = State.Inactive; seller.transfer(3 * value); }
}

Code breakdown and analysis

// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0
pragma solidity ^0.8.4;
contract Purchase {

The state variables for recording the value, seller, and buyer addresses.

 uint public value; address payable public seller; address payable public buyer;

For the first time, we’re introducing the enum data structure that symbolically defines the four possible states of our contract. The states are internally indexed from 0 to enum_length - 1.

 enum State { Created, Locked, Release, Inactive }

The variable state keeps track of the current state. Our contract starts by default in the created state and can transition to the Locked, Release, and Inactive state.

 State public state;

The condition modifier guards a function against executing without previously satisfying the condition, i.e. an expression given alongside the function definition.

 modifier condition(bool condition_) { require(condition_); _; }

The error definitions are used with the appropriate, equally-named modifiers.

 error OnlyBuyer(); error OnlySeller(); error InvalidState(); error ValueNotEven();

The onlyBuyer modifier guards a function against executing when the function caller is not the buyer.

 modifier onlyBuyer() { if (msg.sender != buyer) revert OnlyBuyer(); _; }

The onlySeller modifier guards a function against executing when the function caller differs from the seller.

 modifier onlySeller() { if (msg.sender != seller) revert OnlySeller(); _; }

The inState modifier guards a function against executing when the contract state differs from the required state_.

 modifier inState(State state_) { if (state != state_) revert InvalidState(); _; }

The events that the contract emits to acknowledge the functions abort(), confirmPurchase(), confirmReceived(), and refundSeller() were executed.

 event Aborted(); event PurchaseConfirmed(); event ItemReceived(); event SellerRefunded();

The constructor is declared as payable, meaning that the contract deployment (synonyms creation, instantiation) requires sending a value (msg.value) with the contract-creating transaction.

 constructor() payable {

The seller state variable is set to msg.sender address, cast (converted) to payable.

 seller = payable(msg.sender);

The value state variable is set to half the msg.value, because both the seller and the buyer have to put twice the value of the item being sold/bought into the contract as an escrow agreement.

Info: “Escrow is a legal arrangement in which a third party temporarily holds money or property until a particular condition has been met (such as the fulfillment of a purchase agreement).” (source)

In our case, our escrow is our smart contract.

 value = msg.value / 2;

If the value is not equally divided, i.e. the msg.value is not an even number, the function will terminate. Since the seller will always

 if ((2 * value) != msg.value) revert ValueNotEven(); }

Aborting the remote safe purchase is allowed only in the Created state and only by the seller.

The external keyword makes the function callable only by other accounts / smart contracts. From the business perspective, only the seller can call the abort() function and only before the buyer decides to purchase, i.e. before the contract enters the Locked state.

 function abort() external onlySeller inState(State.Created) {

Emits the Aborted event, the contract state transitions to inactive, and the balance is transferred to the seller.

 emit Aborted(); state = State.Inactive;

Note: “Prior to version 0.5.0, Solidity allowed address members to be accessed by a contract instance, for example, this.balance. This is now forbidden and an explicit conversion to address must be done: address(this).balance.” (docs).

In other words, this keyword lets us access the contract’s inherited members.

Every contract inherits its members from the address type and can access these members via address(this).<a member> (docs).

 seller.transfer(address(this).balance); }

The confirmPurchase() function is available for execution only in the Created state.

It enforces the rule that a msg.value must be twice the value of the purchase.

The confirmPurchase() function is also declared as payable, meaning the caller, i.e. the buyer has to send the currency (msg.value) with the function call.

 function confirmPurchase() external inState(State.Created) condition(msg.value == (2 * value)) payable {

The event PurchaseConfirmed() is emitted to mark the purchase confirmation.

 emit PurchaseConfirmed();

The msg.sender value is cast to payable and assigned to the buyer variable.

Info: Addresses are non-payable by design to prevent accidental payments; that’s why we have to cast an address to a payable before being able to transfer a payment.

 buyer = payable(msg.sender);

The state is set to Locked as seller and buyer entered the contract, i.e., our digital version of an escrow agreement.

 state = State.Locked; }

The confirmReceived() function is available for execution only in the Locked state, and only to the buyer.

Since the buyer deposited twice the value amount and withdrew only a single value amount, the second value amount remains on the contract balance with the seller’s deposit.

 function confirmReceived() external onlyBuyer inState(State.Locked) {

Emits the ItemReceived() event.

 emit ItemReceived();

Changes the state to Release.

 state = State.Release;

Transfers the deposit to the buyer.

 buyer.transfer(value); }

The refundSeller() function is available for execution only in the Release state, and only to the seller.

Since the seller deposited twice the value amount and earned a single value amount from the purchase, the contract transfers three value amounts from the contract balance to the seller.

 function refundSeller() external onlySeller inState(State.Release) {

Emits the SellerRefunded() event.

 emit SellerRefunded();

Changes the state to Inactive.

 state = State.Inactive;

Transfers the deposit of two value amounts and the one earned value amount to the seller.

 seller.transfer(3 * value); }
}

Our smart contract example of a safe remote purchase is a nice and simple example that demonstrates how a purchase may be conducted on the Ethereum blockchain network.

The safe remote purchase example shows two parties, a seller and a buyer, who both enter a trading relationship with their deposits to the contract balance.

Each deposit amounts to twice the value of the purchase, meaning that the contract balance will hold four times the purchase value at its highest point, i.e. in the Locked state.

The height of deposits is intended to stimulate the resolution of any possible disputes between the parties, because otherwise, their deposits will stay locked and unavailable in the contract balance.

When the buyer confirms that he received the goods he purchased, the contract will transition to the Release state, and the purchase value will be released to the buyer.

The seller can now withdraw his earned purchase value with the deposit, the contract balance drops to 0 Wei, the contract transitions to the Inactive state, and the safe remote purchase concludes with execution.

The Contract Arguments

This section contains additional information for running the contract. We should expect that our example accounts may change with each refresh/reload of Remix.

Our contract creation argument is the deposit (twice the purchase value). We’ll assume the purchase value to be 5 Wei, making the contract creation argument very simple:

10

Contract Test Scenario

1. Account 0x5B38Da6a701c568545dCfcB03FcB875f56beddC4 deploys the contract with a deposit of 10 Wei, effectively becoming a seller.
2. Account 0xAb8483F64d9C6d1EcF9b849Ae677dD3315835cb2 confirms the purchase by calling the confirmPurchase() function and enters the trade with a deposit of 10 Wei, effectively becoming a buyer.
3. The buyer confirms receiving the order by calling the confirmReceived() function.
4. The seller concludes the trade by calling the refundSeller() function.

Conclusion

We continued our smart contract example series with this article that implements a safe remote purchase.

First, we laid out clean source code (without any comments) for readability purposes.

Second, we dissected the code, analyzed it, and explained each possibly non-trivial segment.

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Coding Challenge

Challenge: Given a string. How to find all palindromes in the string?

For comprehensibility, allow me to quickly add a definition of the term palindrome:

Definition: A palindrome is a sequence of characters that reads the same backward as forward such as 'madam', 'anna', or '101'.

This article wants to give you a quick and easy solution in Python. First, we’ll solve the easier but important problem of checking if a substring is a palindrome in the first place:

How to Check If String is Palindrome

You can easily check if a string is a palindrome by using the slicing expression word == word[::-1] that evaluates to True if the word is the same forward and backward, i.e., it is a palindrome.

Recommended Tutorial: Python Palindromes One-Liner

Next, we’ll explore how to find all substrings in a Python string that are also palindromes. You can find our palindrome checker in the code solution (highlighted):

Find All Substrings That Are Palindrome

The brute-force approach to finding all palindromes in a string is to iterate over all substrings in a nested for loop. Then check each substring if it is a palindrome using word == word[::-1]. Keep track of the found palindromes using the list.append() method. Return the final list after traversing all substrings.

Here’s the full solution:

def find_palindromes(s): palindromes = [] n = len(s) for i in range(n): for j in range(i+1,n+1): word = s[i:j] if word == word[::-1]: palindromes.append(word) return palindromes print(find_palindromes('locoannamadam'))
# ['l', 'o', 'oco', 'c', 'o', 'a', 'anna',
# 'n', 'nn', 'n', 'a', 'ama', 'm', 'madam',
# 'a', 'ada', 'd', 'a', 'm'] print(find_palindromes('anna'))
# ['a', 'anna', 'n', 'nn', 'n', 'a'] print(find_palindromes('abc'))
# ['a', 'b', 'c']

Runtime Complexity

This has cubic runtime complexity, i.e., for a string with length n, we need to check O(n*n) different words. Each word may have up to n characters, thus the palindrome check itself is O(n). Together, this yields runtime complexity of O(n*n*n) = O(n³).

Quadratic Runtime Solutions

Is this the best we can do? No! There’s also an O(n²) time solution!

Here’s a quadratic-runtime solution to find all palindromes in a given string that ignores the trivial one-character palindromes (significantly modified from source):

def find_palindromes(s, j, k): ''' Finds palindromes in substring between indices j and k''' palindromes = [] while j >= 0 and k < len(s): if s[j] != s[k]: break palindromes.append(s[j: k + 1]) j -= 1 k += 1 return palindromes def find_all(s): '''Finds all palindromes (non-trivial) in string s''' palindromes = [] for i in range(0, len(s)): palindromes.extend(find_palindromes(s, i-1, i+1)) palindromes.extend(find_palindromes(s, i, i+1)) return palindromes print(find_all('locoannamadam'))
# ['oco', 'nn', 'anna', 'ama', 'ada', 'madam'] print(find_all('anna'))
# ['nn', 'anna'] print(find_all('abc'))
# []

Feel free to join our community of ambitious learners like you (we have cheat sheets too):

Problem Formulation and Solution Overview

This article will show you how to get a random entry from a Dictionary in Python.

To make it more interesting, we have the following running scenario:

The Plot: Mr. Sinclair, an 8th great Science Teacher, is giving his students a quiz on the first 25 Periodic Table elements. He has asked you to write a Python script so that when run, it generates a random key, value, or key:value pair from the Dictionary shown below to ask his students.

els = {'Hydrogen': 'H', 'Helium': 'He', 'Lithium': 'Li', 'Beryllium': 'Be', 'Boron': 'B', 'Carbon': 'C', 'Nitrogen': 'N', 'Oxygen': 'O', 'Fluorine': 'F', 'Neon': 'Ne', 'Sodium': 'Na', 'Magnesium': 'Mg', 'Aluminum': 'Al', 'Silicon': 'Si', 'Phosphorus': 'P', 'Sulfur': 'S', 'Chlorine': 'Cl', 'Argon': 'Ar', 'Potassium': 'K', 'Calcium': 'Ca', 'Scandium': 'Sc', 'Titanium': 'Ti', 'Vanadium': 'V', 'Chromium': 'Cr', 'Manganese': 'Mn'}

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Question: How would we write code to get a random entry from a Dictionary?

We can accomplish this task by one of the following options:

• Method 1: Use random.choice() and items()
• Method 2: Use random.choice() and keys()
• Method 3: Use random.choice() and values()
• Method 4: Use sample()
• Method 5: Use np.random.choice()

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Preparation

This article uses the random library for each example. For these code samples to run error-free, add the following snippet to the top of each example.

import random

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Method 1: Use random.choice() and items()

This example uses random.choice() and items() to generate a random Dictionary key:value pair.

el_list = list(els.items())
random_el = random.choice(el_list)
print(random_el)

The above code converts the Dictionary of Periodic Table Elements to a List of Tuples and saves it to el_list. If output to the terminal, the contents of el_list contains the following.

[('Hydrogen', 'H'), ('Helium', 'He'), ('Lithium', 'Li'), ('Beryllium', 'Be'), ('Boron', 'B'), ('Carbon', 'C'), ('Nitrogen', 'N'), ('Oxygen', 'O'), ('Fluorine', 'F'), ('Neon', 'Ne'), ('Sodium', 'Na'), ('Magnesium', 'Mg'), ('Aluminum', 'Al'), ('Silicon', 'Si'), ('Phosphorus', 'P'), ('Sulfur', 'S'), ('Chlorine', 'Cl'), ('Argon', 'Ar'), ('Potassium', 'K'), ('Calcium', 'Ca'), ('Scandium', 'Sc'), ('Titanium', 'Ti'), ('Vanadium', 'V'), ('Chromium', 'Cr'), ('Manganese', 'Mn')]

Next, random.choice() is called and passed one (1) argument: el_list.

The results return a random Tuple from the List of Tuples, saves to random_el and is output to the terminal.

('Oxygen', 'O')

This code can be streamlined down to the following.

random_el = random.choice(list(els.items()))

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Method 2: Use random.choice() and keys()

This example uses random.choice() and keys() to generate a random Dictionary key.

random_el = random.choice(list(els.keys()))
print(random_el)

The above code calls random.choice() and passes it one (1) argument: the keys of the els Dictionary converted to a List of Tuples.

The result returns a random key, saves to random_el and is output to the terminal.

Beryllium

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Method 3: Use random.choice() and dict.values()

This example uses random.choice() and values() to generate a random Dictionary value.

random_el = random.choice(list(els.values()))
print(random_el)

The above code calls random.choice() and passes it one (1) argument: the keys of the els Dictionary converted to a List of Tuples.

The result returns a random value, saves to random_el and is output to the terminal.

Si

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Method 4: Use sample()

This example uses the sample() function to generate a random Dictionary key.

from random import sample
random_el = sample(list(els), 1)
print(random_el)

The above code requires sample to be imported from the random library.

Then, sample() is called and passed two (2) arguments: els converted to a List of Tuples and the number of random keys to return.

The results save to random_el and is output to the terminal.

['Carbon']

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Method 5: Use np.random.choice()

This example uses NumPy and np.random.choice() to generate a random Dictionary key.

Before moving forward, please ensure the NumPy library is installed. Click here if you require instructions.

import numpy as np random_el = np.random.choice(list(els), 1)
print(random_el)

This code imports the NumPy library installed above.

Then, np.random.choice() is called and passed two (2) arguments: els converted to a List of Tuples and the number of random keys to return.

The results save to random_el and is output to the terminal.

['Chromium' 'Silicon' 'Oxygen']

Note: np.random.choice() has an additional parameter that can be passed. This parameter is a List containing associated probabilities.

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Bonus:

This code generates a random key:value pair from a list of tuples. When the teacher runs this code, a random question displays on the screen and waits for a student to answer. Press 1 to display the answer, 2 to quit.

import keyboard
import random
import time els = {'Hydrogen': 'H', 'Helium': 'He', 'Lithium': 'Li', 'Beryllium': 'Be', 'Boron': 'B', 'Carbon': 'C', 'Nitrogen': 'N', 'Oxygen': 'O', 'Fluorine': 'F', 'Neon': 'Ne', 'Sodium': 'Na', 'Magnesium': 'Mg', 'Aluminum': 'Al', 'Silicon': 'Si', 'Phosphorus': 'P', 'Sulfur': 'S', 'Chlorine': 'Cl', 'Argon': 'Ar', 'Potassium': 'K', 'Calcium': 'Ca', 'Scandium': 'Sc', 'Titanium': 'Ti', 'Vanadium': 'V', 'Chromium': 'Cr', 'Manganese': 'Mn'} print('1 Answer 2 quit')
def quiz(): while True: k, v = random.choice(list(els.items())) print(f'\nWhat is the Symbol for {k}?') pressed = keyboard.read_key() if pressed == '1': print(f'The answer is {v}!') elif pressed == '2': print("Exiting\n") exit(0) time.sleep(5)
quiz()

Finxter Challenge!
Write code to allow the teacher to enter the answer!

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Summary

This article has provided five (5) ways to get a random entry from a Dictionary to select the best fit for your coding requirements.

Good Luck & Happy Coding!

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