Category: Programming

In this article, we will completely ignore the coding technicalities and syntax for a change. We’ll focus on time and work management, which represents a significant portion of a skillset of well-rounded and successful companies and individuals. 

Disclaimer: A clear distinction between project and product management might be blurred in some organizations, and could be a topic for another short blog. Therefore, without further ado, we shall be using “project management” terminology for this blog. 

Software engineering consists of creative problem solving and innovation. Almost daily, coders and developers face new challenges or problems that they’ve never solved before. 

Software engineering as a filed involves minimal routine and, therefore, a higher degree of uncertainty or variety not only towards HOW to solve a specific problem but often also about WHAT exactly needs to be solved.

To be successful, good time and work management are essential. Let’s begin with a few statements which we will expand on as we go along:

• Time and work management is a skill. And, as with any other skill, you can learn it.
• Even the world’s best coder is useless without good work or time management—regardless whether they’re working as a freelancer or an employee in a development team).
• Management is a highly transferable skill: you can apply it in almost any field.

Overview

You can use and take advantage of several project management frameworks, approaches, and concrete techniques. Their advantages and disadvantages are a common topic for debate, which we’ll try and avoid addressing in this blog. The topic quickly becomes highly complex, and very rarely is there an ultimate right answer as to which approaches, techniques, or methods are the best. In reality, it depends on a wide variety of factors such as type of the project, spectrum of personalities of people involved, management skills, company policies, etc. 

There are three ultimate truths to keep in mind:

• Each method possesses certain elements that are suitable to adopt or use in a particular project.
• No plan and no structure leads to anarchy.
• If you have to apply any method because the framework you’ve chosen tells you so, you’re doing it wrong! Every management method you choose to implement should be at your service and help you optimize your workflow. 

Many would argue that project management approaches are “brand-named common sense”: recently, names were put to processes that happened naturally.

In this sense, we mostly speak of three approaches: 

1. Traditional or “waterfall” model,
2. Agile methodologies, and
3. Lean software development methods.

Related: You can read more about the most common methodologies in this article, which includes summaries and also links to external resources.

Traditional Waterfall Methodology

Waterfall is the most traditional approach and is mainly plan-driven, meaning that a substantial amount of time is spent on planning at first.

Once all requirements are well-defined, there comes a design phase. There, all requirements are translated into technical language, meaning how they would be implemented or accomplished.

This is followed by an implementation phase, where all functionalities are actually implemented according to what’s been outlined so far.

Once all is implemented, there is a verification and testing phase takes place where all functionalities are double-checked and verified.

Upon completion, the product is deployed, which is followed by a maintenance phase. This approach is very well established, repeatedly proving itself as the most useful in projects where the goal is apparent, and the team knows how to get there.

Agile Methodologies

A whole family of agile methodologies and frameworks are all designed around the same baseline, challenging the high rigidity (or lack of flexibility) of the waterfall model. Agile approaches are designed to accommodate changes that inevitably happen as we learn new things during development. Agile approaches allow for re-planning and strongly rely on people’s communication, transparency, commitment, common goals, and values over a fixed plan.

Agile methodologies mostly apply in projects where the degree of uncertainty and complexity are high.

To this category, we can attach projects that are on the high end of innovation, where we don’t know what they will become, what impact they will have, and we might need to re-direct or focus as we go along so we can match the audience’s expectations.

On the other hand, we have highly complex projects that are out of our scope of skills. We are attempting to develop something we’ve never done before, which makes our early planning highly inaccurate. 

Source: https://www.agile-minds.com/when-to-use-waterfall-when-agile/

Scrum

According to Google trends, the term “Scrum framework” has undergone an increasing interest over the past decade.

Scrum is a variant of an agile approach that puts the development team on its front page. It assumes that the most efficient way of working is having small, “self-officiating” and self-organizing teams (up to 9 people) with a few key roles. The development process relies on incremental work of short periods (“sprints”), where the goal of each period (sprint) is to come up with a concluded deliverable (“increment”) that maximizes the final product’s value.

Source: The basic principles of Scrum are published in the scrum guide (https://www.scrumguides.org/scrum-guide.html).

Scrum Team

Scrum is people-oriented and assumes small groups working together. It is purposefully defined in a lightweight way, and it highly relies on people’s character. The values that are promoted are values of commitment, courage, focus, openness, and respect. It is assumed that people in organizations that practice scrum framework would in time adopt those values and live by them: commit to a common goal, always do the right thing and maintain transparent and respectful relationships with their fellow team members. It is also assumed that a scrum team consists of people with all necessary relevant skills to complete the work.

Following this principle, the size of the scrum team is strictly limited to between 3 and 9 people. Fewer than three would increase the probability of lacking skills to complete the work, whereas having more than nine people makes the communication too complicated.

The main roles defined in a scrum team are:

• The product owner is responsible for maximizing the product’s value under development, managing the product backlog, and ensuring the development team understands it. The product owner is NOT a part of the development team.
• The Scrum master: facilitates the scrum principles among the scrum team by promoting the rules, values, and practices of Scrum. Scrum master is also a part of the development team.
• The development team: professionals who deliver a potentially releasable increment at the end of each sprint (what those can be read in the next section)

No member of the Scrum team is superior on inferior to another in this core definition.

Scrum Events

Scrum frameworks have clearly defined events during work execution. All product features are kept and prioritized in a product backlog (managed by the product owner).

Activities are executed through sprints, a max. 4 weeks long periods during which an increment is designed, developed, tested, and delivered. In this case, the increment represents a small enough feature or development step that can be completed and declared as “done” in one sprint. Bigger chunks of work are sensibly broken down into smaller pieces.

Every sprint begins with a sprint planning session where a sprint backlog is created. The development team then performs daily scrum/stand-up where they plan the work for the next 24h. When the sprint comes to an end, and an increment is developed, the sprint review session is held. There, all stakeholders (also external ones) review what was done and together refine the product backlog. The development team on their own finally hold a sprint retrospective where the point of debate is to answer questions like “how can we function better as a team?” or “what would make our work more enjoyable?”. It’s more work-oriented rather than product-oriented.

Source: https://www.scrum.org/resources/scrum-framework-poster.

Scrum Earning Potential

How formal are these roles, and how much are they worth? According to Glassdoor, a Scrum product owner’s annual salary is between 90k and 120k USD, whereas the Scrum Master’s salary is between 90k and 100k USD (source). 

Conclusion

Any organization you will be involved with will practice a different methodology. Mastering the skill of using the values, structures, or disciplines promoted in any of these frameworks is highly transferable. Values promoted in Scrum can be useful in any other environment, even in your private life. 

There are much doubt and debate about whether scrum principles are too vague. It is being argued that they have to be so vastly modified to be implemented in a work environment among different organizations, that they are often largely decoupled from the “rulebook” of Scrum. Secondly, some organizations had trouble translating principles of scrum framework into reality, arguing that it took a very long time. It can be hard to make it work with the people who are not open to changes. Many people don’t want to alter their well-functioning ways of working just to fit the model. 

In reality, scrum practice is as challenging to master as any other. Clearly, lack of understanding or competence in this field can adversely affect your business. To function properly, Scrum must be adopted corporate-wide. 

All of these models put the messiness of reality into a model or framework of actions and relationships that might fit your business. It is up to you to decide whether to adopt them or not and to what extent. Adhering to the principles of one is the most useful step to make at a certain point. The ultimate goal is to tweak and tune your project management to make it the most compatible with your technical skills, marketing, and all other skills that complete you as a freelancer, business owner, or team member in general.

About the Author

Luka Banović is a full-time engineering project manager at IRNAS LTD in Slovenia (and also a Finxter). A line of experience in engineering project leading has taught him many perks of this job, and he is happy to share some ideas with the Finxter community. 

If you’re like me, you try things first in your code and fix the bugs as they come. One frequent bug in Python is the IndexError: list index out of range. So, what does this error message mean?

The error “list index out of range” arises if you access invalid indices in your Python list. For example, if you try to access the list element with index 100 but your lists consist only of three elements, Python will throw an IndexError telling you that the list index is out of range.

Let’s have a look at an example where this error arises:

lst = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Carl']
print(lst[3])

The element with index 3 doesn’t exist in the list with three elements. Why is that? The following graphic shows that the maximal index in your list is 2. The call lst[2] would retrieve the third list element 'Carl'. Did you try to access the third element with index 3? It’s a common mistake: The index of the third element is 2 because the index of the first list element is 0.

• lst[0] –> Alice
• lst[1] –> Bob
• lst[2] –> Carl
• lst[3] –> ??? Error ???

Try It Yourself: Before I tell you what to do about it, try to fix the code yourself in our interactive Python shell:

Exercise: Fix the code in the interactive code shell to get rid of the error message.

How to Fix the IndexError in a For Loop? [General Strategy]

So, how can you fix the code? Python tells you in which line and on which list the error occurs.

To pin down the exact problem, check the value of the index just before the error occurs. To achieve this, you can print the index that causes the error before you use it on the list. This way, you’ll have your wrong index in the shell right before the error message.

Here’s an example of wrong code that will cause the error to appear:

# WRONG CODE
lst = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann', 'Carl'] for i in range(len(lst)+1): lst[i] # Traceback (most recent call last):
# File "C:\Users\xcent\Desktop\code.py", line 5, in <module>
# lst[i]
# IndexError: list index out of range

The error message tells you that the error appears in line 5. So, let’s insert a print statement before that line:

lst = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann', 'Carl'] for i in range(len(lst)+1): print(i) lst[i]

The result of this code snippet is still an error. But there’s more:

0
1
2
3
4
Traceback (most recent call last): File "C:\Users\xcent\Desktop\code.py", line 6, in <module> lst[i]
IndexError: list index out of range

You can now see all indices used to retrieve an element. The final one is the index i=4 which points to the fifth element in the list (remember: Python starts indexing at index 0!). But the list has only four elements, so you need to reduce the number of indices you’re iterating over. The correct code is, therefore:

# CORRECT CODE
lst = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann', 'Carl'] for i in range(len(lst)): lst[i]

Note that this is a minimal example and it doesn’t make a lot of sense. But the general debugging strategy remains even for advanced code projects:

• Figure out the faulty index just before the error is thrown.
• Eliminate the source of the faulty index.

IndexError When Modifying a List as You Iterate Over It

The IndexError also frequently occurs if you iterate over a list but you remove elements as you iterate over the list:

l=[1,2,3,0,0,1]
for i in range(0, len(l)): if l[i]==0: l.pop(i)

This code snippet is from a StackOverflow question. The source is simply that the list.pop() method removes the element with value 0. All subsequent elements now have a smaller index. But you iterate over all indices up to len(l)-1 = 6-1 = 5 and the index 5 does not exist in the list after removing elements in a previous iteration.

You can simply fix this with a short list comprehension statement that accomplishes the same thing:

l = [x for x in l if x]

Only non-zero elements are included in the list.

String IndexError: List Index Out of Range

The error can occur when accessing strings as well:

s = 'Python'
print(s[6])

To fix the error for strings, make sure that the index falls between the range 0 ... len(s)-1 (included):

s = 'Python'
print(s[5])
# n

Tuple IndexError: List Index Out of Range

In fact, the IndexError can occur for all ordered collections where you can use indexing to retrieve certain elements. Thus, it also occurs when accessing tuple indices that do not exist:

s = ('Alice', 'Bob')
print(s[2])

Again, start counting with index 0 to get rid of this:

s = ('Alice', 'Bob')
print(s[1])
# Bob

Note: The index of the last element in any sequence is len(sequence)-1.

Where to Go From Here?

Enough theory, let’s get some practice!

To become successful in coding, you need to get out there and solve real problems for real people. That’s how you can become a six-figure earner easily. And that’s how you polish the skills you really need in practice. After all, what’s the use of learning theory that nobody ever needs?

Practice projects is how you sharpen your saw in coding!

Do you want to become a code master by focusing on practical code projects that actually earn you money and solve problems for people?

Then become a Python freelance developer! It’s the best way of approaching the task of improving your Python skills—even if you are a complete beginner.

Join my free webinar “How to Build Your High-Income Skill Python” and watch how I grew my coding business online and how you can, too—from the comfort of your own home.

Join the free webinar now!

Python’s math module provides you with some of the most popular mathematical functions you may want to use. In this article, I’ll take you through the most common ones. You can also watch the following tutorial video in which I’ll guide you through the article:

The math module is part of the Python standard library, and it is always available with every Python installation. However, you must import it before you can start using the functions it contains.

import math

Now every function in the math library is accessible by calling math.function_name(). If you want to import specific functions, use the standard from math import function_name syntax.

Python Math Floor

The math.floor(x) function takes one argument x – either a float or int – and returns the largest integer less than or equal to x.

>>> math.floor(3.9845794)
3
>>> math.floor(9673.0001)
9673
>>> math.floor(12)
12

The largest numbers less than or equal to 3.9845794 and 9673.0001 are 3 and 9673, respectively. Since 12 is an integer, the result of math.floor(12) is 12 itself.

>>> math.floor(-10.5)
-11

The floor of -10.5 is -11. This can sometimes be confusing but remember that -11 < -10 < -9 < … < -1 < 0.

If you create custom a custom Python class, you can make them work with math.floor() by defining a __floor__() method.

Try It Yourself: Run the following interactive Python shell.

Exercise: Can you figure out the output before running it?

Python Math.Ceil

The math.ceil(x) function takes one argument x – either a float or int – and returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.

>>> math.ceil(3.9845794)
4
>>> math.ceil(9673.0001)
9674
>>> math.ceil(12)
12

The smallest numbers greater than or equal to 3.9845794 and 9673.0001 are 4 and 9674, respectively. Since 12 is an integer, the result of math.ceil(12) is 12 itself.

>>> math.ceil(-10.5)
-10

The ceiling of -10.5 is -10. Your instinct that 10 < 10.5 is correct when 10 is a positive number. But the opposite is true for negative numbers, and so -10.5 < -10.

If you create custom a custom Python class, you can make them work with math.ceil() by defining a __ceil__() method.

Python Math Operators

The standard mathematical operators are not defined in the math module but rather in the syntax of Python itself.

To add two numbers together, use the + operator.

>>> 5 + 10
15

To subtract two numbers, use the - operator.

>>> 5 - 10
-5

To multiply two numbers together, use the * operator.

>>> 5 * 10
50

To divide two numbers, use the / operator.

>>> 5 / 10
0.5

Note that this always returns a float even if the result is a whole number.

>>> 10 / 5
2.0

Remember that if you take two random numbers and divide them, it is highly unlikely they will divide each other perfectly, so it is logical that all division with / returns a float.

To raise a number to a certain power, use the ** operator.

>>> 5 ** 10
9765625

This is ‘five to the power of ten‘ and you write it in the same order you would write this out by hand.

Then there are some other operators used less often in mathematics but are incredibly useful for computer science and coding: modulus and floor division.

The modulus operator returns the remainder left when one number is divided by another. You perform this calculation with the % operator in Python.

>>> 13 % 3
1

You should read the above line as ‘13 modulo 3‘, and the result is 1. This is because 3 goes into 13 four times (3 x 4 = 12) and the the total difference between 13 and 12 is: 13 – 12 = 1.

Another way to think of it is if you write 13/3 as a compound fraction, you get 4 + 1/3. Looking at the fraction left over – 1/3 – take the numerator (the top part) to get the final result: 1.

If you do many ‘modulo n’ calculations, the set of possible results ranges from 0 up to and including n-1. So for 3, the range of possible results is 0, 1, and 2.

Here are some more examples:

>>> 14 % 3
2
>>> 15 % 3
0
>>> 16 % 3
1

You can see that 15 % 3 is 0. This result is the case for all multiples of 3.

One incredibly useful way to use the modulo operator is in for loops if you want to do something every n-th iteration.

for i in range(10): if i % 4 == 0: print('Divisible by 4!!!') else: print('Not divisible by 4 :(')

Divisible by 4!!!
Not divisible by 4 :(
Not divisible by 4 :(
Not divisible by 4 :(
Divisible by 4!!!
Not divisible by 4 :(
Not divisible by 4 :(
Not divisible by 4 :(
Divisible by 4!!!
Not divisible by 4 :(

Here I used the modulo operator to print Divisible by 4!!! every time i was divisible by 4 – i.e., when i % 4 == 0 – and print Not divisible by 4 :( in all other cases.

The final built-in operator is related to modulo. It performs floor division and is written as //. As the name suggests, floor division is the same as normal division but always rounds the result down to the nearest whole number.

If you write 13/3 as a compound fraction, you get 4 + 1/3. Floor division returns the whole number part of this fraction, 4 in this case.

>>> 13 // 3
4
>>> 13 / 3 4.333333333333333

Here I calculated ‘thirteen floor three’, and this returns 4. The result of ‘thirteen divided by three’ is 4.3333, and if you round this down, you get 4.

Another way to think of it is if you write 13/3 as a compound fraction, you get 4 + 1/3. Floor division returns the whole number part of this fraction, 4 in this case.

Here are some more examples:

>>> 14 // 3
4
>>> 15 // 3
5
>>> 16 // 3
5

Note that all of the above examples are ints being floor divided by ints. In each case, Python returns an int. But if either of the numbers is a float, Python returns a float.

>>> 14.0 // 3
4.0
>>> 14 // 3.0
4.0

This result is different to normal division / which always returns a float.

You can perform floor division on any two numbers, but you may get surprising results if you add decimal places.

# No difference to normal
>>> 14.999 // 3
4.0
# Returns 3.0, not 4.0!
>>> 14 // 3.999
3.0
# Now we see why
>>> 14 / 3.999
3.500875218804701

When you run 14 // 3.999, the result is 3.0 because 14 / 3.999 is 3.508... and the floor of 3.508... is 3.

Floor division for negative numbers works in the same way.

>>> -14 / 3
-4.666666666666667
>>> -14 // 3
-5

Recall that floor division takes the lower number and that -5 < -4. Thus the result of floor division for negative numbers is not the same as adding a minus sign to the result of floor division for positive numbers.

Try It Yourself: Run the following interactive Python shell.

Exercise: Which line does not produce output integer 42?

Python Math Domain Error

You may encounter a special ValueError when working with Python’s math module.

ValueError: math domain error

Python raises this error when you try to do something that is not mathematically possible or mathematically defined.

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt # Plotting y = log(x)
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
ax.set(xlim=(-5, 20), ylim=(-4, 4), title='log(x)', ylabel='y', xlabel='x')
x = np.linspace(-10, 20, num=1000)
y = np.log(x) plt.plot(x, y)

This is the graph of log(x). Don’t worry if you don’t understand the code, what’s more important is the following point. You can see that log(x) tends to negative infinity as x tends to 0. Thus, it is mathematically meaningless to calculate the log of a negative number. If you try to do so, Python raises a math domain error.

>>> math.log(-10)
Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: math domain error

Python Math Round

Rounding is more complicated than you might expect. Incorrectly rounding floats has lead to disastrous consequences. The Vancouver Stock Exchange used an overly simplified rounding algorithm when trading stocks. In less than two years, the algorithm resulted in the price of the stock exchange being half of what it should have been!

The round() function is not part of the math module but rather a built-in function you can access at all times.

It accepts two arguments:

round(number[, ndigits])

The number is an int or float, and ndigits is the rounding precision you want after the decimal point. The square brackets around ndigits signify that it is an optional argument. If you omit ndigits, Python rounds number to the closest integer.

# Closest integer
>>> round(10.237)
10
# One decimal place
>>> round(10.237, 1)
10.2
# Two decimal places
>>> round(10.237, 2)
10.24

Here you can see that round() works as you would expect.

First, I want to round 10.237 to an integer. So, let’s look at the first value after the decimal place and round down if it’s less than 5 and up if it’s greater than 5. The first value is 2, and so you round down to get 10. For the next example, round 10.237 to one decimal place. Look at the second decimal place – 3 – and so round it down to get 10.2. Finally, round 10.237 to two decimal places by looking at the third decimal place – 7 – and rounding up to get 10.24.

This algorithm works as expected; however, it is not that simple. Let’s look at rounding 1.5 and 2.5.

>>> round(1.5)
2

This rounds to 2, as expected.

>>> round(2.5)
2

But this also rounds to 2! What is going on?

The round() function applies a type of rounding called ’rounding half to even’. This means that, in the event of a tie, Python rounds to the closest even number.

The mathematical logic underpinning it is explained here, but in short, the reason Python does this is to preserve the mean of the numbers. If all the ties are rounded up (as we are taught in school), then if you round a collection of numbers, the mean of the rounded numbers will be larger than the mean of the actual collection.

Python assumes that about half will be odd for a random collection of numbers, and half will be even. In practice, this is true most of the time. However, there are more mathematically rigorous methods you can use in extreme circumstances.

Note that floating-point arithmetic has some inherent issues that cannot be resolved. Fortunately, this is built into all programming languages, mainly because computers represent floats as binary numbers. Some numbers that have finite floating-point representations – such as 0.1 – have infinite binary representations – 0.0001100110011… – and vice versa. Thus, the round() function is not perfect.

# Expected 2.68 but got 2.67
>>> round(2.675, 2)
2.67

From what I’ve said above, this example should return 2.68 as that is an even number. However, it returns 2.67. This result is not a bug and is a known property of the function. For the vast majority of cases, round() works as I described above, but you should know that it is not perfect. If you want something more precise, use the decimal module.

Python Math Pi

The math module includes some mathematical constants, one of which is π (pi).

>>> math.pi
3.141592653589793

It is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter and is 3.141592653589793 to 15 decimal places. If you are going to use this constant a lot, I recommend importing it separately to save you typing out math. every time you want to use it.

>>> from math import pi
>>> pi
3.141592653589793

Python Math Sqrt

To calculate the square root of a number, use the math.sqrt(n) function.

>>> math.sqrt(2)
1.4142135623730951
>>> math.sqrt(16)
4.0

Note that this always returns a float. Even if you pass an int and Python can express the result as an int, it always returns a float. This functionality is similar to the division operator and makes logical sense; the vast majority of times you calculate a square root, it will not return an integer.

As of Python 3.8, there is also the function math.isqrt(n) which returns the integer square root for some integer n. This result you get is the same as applying math.sqrt(n) and then math.floor() to the result.

# Only works with Python 3.8
>>> math.isqrt(2)
1
>>> math.isqrt(16)
4

If you pass numbers that have precise square roots, you get a similar result to math.sqrt(), but the result is always an integer.

>>> math.isqrt(16.0)
Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: 'float' object cannot be interpreted as an integer

You cannot pass a float.

>>> math.isqrt(17)
4
>>> math.floor(math.sqrt(17))
4

The function math.isqrt(n) is the same as math.floor(math.sqrt(n)) if n is an integer,

Python Math Abs

The abs() function is a built-in function that returns the absolute value of a number. The function accepts integers, floats, and complex numbers as input.

If you pass abs() an integer or float, n, it returns the non-negative value of n and preserves its type. In other words, if you pass an integer, abs() returns an integer, and if you pass a float, it returns a float.

# Int returns int
>>> abs(20)
20
# Float returns float
>>> abs(20.0)
20.0
>>> abs(-20.0)
20.0

The first example returns an int, the second returns a float, and the final example returns a float and demonstrates that abs() always returns a positive number.

Complex numbers are made up of two parts and can be written as a + bj where a and b are either ints or floats. The absolute value of a + bj is defined mathematically as math.sqrt(a**2 + b**2). Thus, the result is always positive and always a float (since taking the square root always returns a float).

>>> abs(3 + 4j)
5.0
>>> math.sqrt(3**2 + 4**2)
5.0

Here you can see that abs() always returns a float and that the result of abs(a + bj) is the same as math.sqrt(a**2 + b**2).

Python Math Random

To generate random numbers, you must use the Python random module rather than the math module. That link takes you to an article I’ve written all about it.

Python Math Degrees

It is important that you can quickly switch between degrees and radians, especially if you work with trigonometric functions.

Let’s say you have an angle r which is in radians, and you want to convert it to degrees. Simply call math.degrees(r).

Let’s look at some common examples.

# You need to use pi a lot, so let's import it
>>> from math import pi
>>> math.degrees(pi)
180.0
>>> math.degrees(pi/4)
45.0
>>> math.degrees(2*pi)
360.0

First, I imported pi so that I could easily use it in all the functions. Then I calculated some common degree-to-radians conversions. Note that math.degrees() always returns a float. This result is expected as the vast majority of the time, the result of a conversion is not a whole number.

Note that, as is always the case with floating-point arithmetic, this function is not perfect.

>>> math.degrees(pi/3)
59.99999999999999

This should return 60.0. But note that since 0.999… recurring equals 1, it will not negatively impact your results.

Python Math Radians

Let’s say you have an angle d in degrees, and you want to convert it to radians. Simply call math.radians(d).

Let’s look at some common examples.

>>> from math import pi
>>> math.radians(180)
3.141592653589793
>>> math.radians(180) == pi
True
>>> math.radians(45)
0.7853981633974483
>>> math.radians(45) == pi/4
True

One downside with converting degrees to radians is that radians are much harder for humans to read. So, I added in the equality statements afterward to show you that 180 degrees, when converted to radians, is π and likewise for 45 degrees and π/4.

This function is especially crucial if you want to use any of the trigonometric functions as they assume you are passing an angle in radians.

Python Math Sin

To calculate the sine of some angle r, call math.sin(r). Note that the function assumes that r is in radians.

>>> math.sin(0)
0
# Assumes angle is in radians!
>>> math.sin(90)
0.8939966636005579
# Convert to radians
>>> math.sin(math.radians(90))
1.0
# Enter as radians
>>> math.sin(pi/2)
1.0

From high school math, we know that sin(90) = 1.0 if 90 is in degrees. But here I demonstrate that you do not get 1.0 if you input 90. Instead, input pi/2, and you get the expected result. Alternatively, you can use the math.radians() function to convert any angle in degrees to radians.

Let’s look at the result for math.sin(pi).

>>> math.sin(pi)
1.2246467991473532e-16

Again, from high school math, you expect the result to be 0.0, but, as is often the case with floating-point arithmetic, this is not the case. Although we know that the sine of 0 and π are the same value, unfortunately, it is not reflected in the output. This result is because π is an infinite decimal that cannot be represented fully in a computer. However, the number is so small that it should not make a massive difference to your calculations. But if you need it to equal 0, there are some methods you can try, but I will not discuss them in this article for brevity.

Finally, note that all the values returned are floats even if Python can represent them as integers.

Python Math Cos

To calculate the cosine of some angle r, call math.cos(r). Note that the function assumes that r is in radians.

>>> math.cos(0)
1.0
# Assumes angle is in radians
>>> math.cos(180)
-0.5984600690578581
# Convert to radians
>>> math.cos(math.radians(180))
-1.0
# Enter angle in radians
>>> math.cos(pi)
-1.0

From high school math, we know that cos(180) = -1.0 if 180 is in degrees. However, the trigonometric functions expect the angle to be in radians. So, you must either convert it to radians using the math.radians(180) function, or enter the actual radians value, which is pi in this case. Both methods give you the answer -1.0 as expected.

Let’s look at the result of math.cos(pi/2).

>>> math.cos(pi/2)
6.123233995736766e-17

The result of math.cos(pi/2) should be 0.0, but instead, it is a tiny number close to 0. This is because π is an infinite decimal that cannot be represented entirely in a computer. This functionality should be fine for most cases. If you must have it equal to 0, check out this Stack Overflow answer for alternative methods you can use.

Python Math Tan

To calculate the tangent of some angle r, call math.tan(r). Note that the function assumes that r is in radians.

>>> math.tan(0)
0.0
>>> math.tan(pi/4)
0.9999999999999999
>>> math.tan(pi/2)
1.633123935319537e+16

The results for math.tan() are similar to those for math.sin() and math.cos(). You get the results you expect for 0.0, but once you start including pi, nothing is exactly what you expect. For example, tan(pi/4) is 1, but Python returns 0.999.... This may not look the same, but, mathematically, they are equal). The result of tan(pi/2) should be positive infinity, but Python returns a huge number instead. This result is nice as it lets you perform calculations with math.tan() without throwing loads of errors all the time.

Conclusion

There you have it; you now know how to use the most common functions in Python’s built-in math module!

You can take the floor or ceiling of any number using math.floor() and math.ceil(). You know all the essential operators, what types they return, and when. You’ve seen that Python raises a Math Domain Error if you try to do something mathematically impossible. And you can use some essential functions and constants for scientific computing such as math.pi, converting angles from degrees to radians and using the most common trigonometric functions – sin, cos, and tan.

There are some more functions I didn’t get the chance to cover in this article, such as the inverse and hyperbolic trigonometric functions. With your knowledge, you’ll easily understand and use them if you quickly read the docs.

Where To Go From Here?

Do you wish you could be a programmer full-time but don’t know how to start?

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Do you want to convert a Python set to a list? Use the list(...) constructor and pass the set object as an argument. For example, to convert a set of strings friends into a list, use the code expression list(friends).

Here’s an example code snippet that converts the set to a list using the list(...) constructor:

# Create the set of strings
friends = {'Alice', 'Ann', 'Bob'} # Convert the set to a list
l = list(friends) # Print both
print(friends)
print(l) '''
{'Ann', 'Alice', 'Bob'}
['Alice', 'Ann', 'Bob'] '''

Try it in our interactive Python shell:

Exercise: Add more elements to the set. Does the list always have the same order as the set?

Python Set to List Order

A set is defined as an unordered collection of unique elements. The keyword is “unordered” here. Python does not guarantee any particular order of the elements in the resulting list. If you convert a set to a list, the elements can have an arbitrary order.

Python Set to List Keep Order

But what if you want to preserve the order when converting a set to a list (and, maybe, back)?

I’ve written a detailed article on this topic so check it out if you need more info.

Create a dictionary from the elements in the list to remove all duplicates and convert the dictionary back to a list. This preserves the order of the original list elements.

lst = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Bob', 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 3]
print(list(dict.fromkeys(lst)))
# ['Alice', 'Bob', 1, 2, 3]

1. Convert the list to a dictionary with dict.fromkeys(lst).
2. Convert the dictionary into a list with list(dict).

Each list element becomes a new key to the dictionary. For example, the list [1, 2, 3] becomes the dictionary {1:None, 2:None, 3:None}. All elements that occur multiple times will be assigned to the same key. Thus, the dictionary contains only unique keys—there cannot be multiple equal keys.

As dictionary values, you take dummy values (per default).

Then, you convert the dictionary back to a list, throwing away the dummy values.

Here’s the code:

>>> lst = [1, 1, 1, 3, 2, 5, 5, 2]
>>> dic = dict.fromkeys(lst)
>>> dic
{1: None, 3: None, 2: None, 5: None}
>>> duplicate_free = list(dic)
>>> duplicate_free
[1, 3, 2, 5]

This way, you can simply use the ordered dictionary data type.

Related blog articles:

• Python List to Set Conversion
• Python Remove Duplicates From List of Lists
• Python List Remove
• The Ultimate Guide to Python Dictionaries!

Python Set to List Sorted

Problem: Convert a set to a sorted list.

Example: Convert set {0, 9, 8, 3} to the sorted list [0, 3, 8, 9].

Solution: Use the sorted(...) method that creates a new list from any iterable you pass as an argument.

Code: Let’s have a look at the source code that solves the problem!

s = {0, 9, 8, 3}
l = sorted(s)
print(l)
# [0, 3, 8, 9]

Exercise: Can you modify the code so that the elements are sorted in descending order?

Python Set to List Unpacking

An alternative method to convert a set to a list is unpacking with the asterisk operator *. You can simply unpack all elements in set s into an empty list by using the asterisk as a prefix within an empty list like this [*s]. It’s a fast and Pythonic way of converting a set to a list. And it has the advantage that you can also convert multiple sets into a single list like this: [*s1, *s2, ..., *sn].

Here’s the minimal example:

s1 = {1, 2}
s2 = {3, 4}
s3 = {5, 6, 7, 8} l1 = [*s1]
l2 = [*s1, *s2]
l3 = [*s1, *s2, *s3] print(l1)
print(l2)
print(l3) '''
[1, 2]
[1, 2, 3, 4]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 5, 6, 7] '''

Exercise: Play with the following code unpacking a fourth set into a new list l4.

Python Set to List Complexity

The time complexity of converting a set to a list is linear in the number of list elements. So, if the set has n elements, the asymptotic complexity is O(n). The reason is that you need to iterate over each element in the set which is O(n), and append this element to the list which is O(1). Together the complexity is O(n) * O(1) = O(n * 1) = O(n).

Here’s the pseudo-code implementation of the set to list conversion method:

def set_to_list(s): l = [] # Repeat n times --> O(n) for x in s: # Append element to list --> O(1) l.append(x) return s friends = {'Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann', 'Liz', 'Alice'}
l = set_to_list(friends)
print(l)
# {'Alice', 'Liz', 'Ann', 'Bob'}

Need help understanding this code snippet? Try visualizing it in your browser—just click “Next” to see what the code does in memory:

Python Add Set to List

Problem: Given a list l and a set s. Add all elements in s to list l.

Example: Given is list ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann'] and set {42, 21}. You want to get the resulting list ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann', 42, 21].

Solution: Use the list.extend(iterable) method to add all elements in the iterable to the list.

Code: The following code accomplishes this.

l = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann']
s = {42, 21}
l.extend(s)
print(l)
# ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann', 42, 21]

Exercise: download your free Python cheat sheets and join my free community of Python coders who love their trade.

TypeError: ‘set’ object is not callable

Sometimes you can see the following seemingly strange behavior (e.g., here):

s = set([1, 2, 3])
l = list(s)

The output may give you the following cryptic error message:

TypeError: 'set' object is not callable

The reason is—in all likelihood—that you overwrote the name set in your namespace. This happens if you assign a value to a variable called ‘set’. Python will assume that set is a variable—and tells you that you cannot call variables.

Here’s code that will cause this issue:

set = {1, 2}
lst = [1, 2, 3]
s = set(lst) '''
Traceback (most recent call last): File "C:\Users\xcent\Desktop\code.py", line 3, in <module> s = set(lst)
TypeError: 'set' object is not callable '''

You can fix it by using another variable name so that the built-in function set() is not overshadowed:

s0 = {1, 2}
lst = [1, 2, 3]
s = set(lst)

Now, no such error is thrown because the set name correctly points to the Python built-in constructor function.

Where to Go From Here?

Enough theory, let’s get some practice!

To become successful in coding, you need to get out there and solve real problems for real people. That’s how you can become a six-figure earner easily. And that’s how you polish the skills you really need in practice. After all, what’s the use of learning theory that nobody ever needs?

Practice projects is how you sharpen your saw in coding!

Do you want to become a code master by focusing on practical code projects that actually earn you money and solve problems for people?

Then become a Python freelance developer! It’s the best way of approaching the task of improving your Python skills—even if you are a complete beginner.

Join my free webinar “How to Build Your High-Income Skill Python” and watch how I grew my coding business online and how you can, too—from the comfort of your own home.

Join the free webinar now!

Do you have a list but you want to convert it to a Python set? No problem! Use the set(...) constructor and pass the list object as an argument. For example, if you have a list of strings friends, you can convert it to a set using the call set(friends).

Here’s an example code snippet:

friends = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann', 'Liz']
s = set(friends)
print(s)
# {'Ann', 'Alice', 'Bob', 'Liz'}

Try it yourself in our interactive Python shell:

Exercise: Add another string 'Alice' to the list friends and see the resulting set. How many elements do the list and the set have?

Python List to Set Time Complexity

The time complexity of converting a list to a set is linear in the number of list elements. So, if the set has n elements, the asymptotic complexity is O(n). The reason is that you need to iterate over each element in the list which is O(n), and add this element to the set which is O(1). Together the complexity is O(n) * O(1) = O(n * 1) = O(n).

Here’s the pseudo-code implementation of the list to set conversion method:

def list_to_set(l): s = set() # Repeat n times --> O(n) for x in l: # Add element to set --> O(1) s.add(x) return s friends = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann', 'Liz', 'Alice']
s = list_to_set(friends)
print(s)
# {'Ann', 'Alice', 'Bob', 'Liz'}

Need help understanding this code snippet? Try visualizing it in your browser—just click “Next” to see what the code does in memory:

Python List to Set Remove Duplicates

The set data structure is one of the basic collection data types in Python and many other programming languages.

A set is an unordered collection of unique elements. (Read more on the Ultimate Guide to Python Sets)

• Collection: A set is a collection of elements like a list or a tuple. The collection consists of either primitive elements (e.g. integers, floats, strings), or complex elements (e.g. objects, tuples). However, in a set all data elements must be hashable because it heavily relies on the hash function to implement the specification.
• Unordered: Unlike lists, sets are unordered because there is no fixed order of the elements. In other words, regardless of the order you put stuff in the set, you can never be sure in which order the set stores these elements.
• Unique: All elements in the set are unique. Each pair of values (x,y) in the set produces a different pair of hash values (hash(x)!=hash(y)). Hence, each pair of elements x and y in the set are different.

Thus, you can remove all duplicates from a list x by converting it into a set and back into a list using the command list(set(x)). However, the ordering information may be lost in the process (as a set is, by definition, unordered).

friends = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann', 'Liz', 'Alice', 'Bob']
print(friends)
# ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Ann', 'Liz', 'Alice', 'Bob'] dup_free = list(set(friends))
print(dup_free)
# ['Bob', 'Alice', 'Liz', 'Ann']

This way, the resulting list doesn’t have any duplicates—but it also has lost the order of elements: strings 'Liz' and 'Ann' switched their order after conversion. This may be different on your computer!

Python List to Set to List: list(set(x))

By converting a list x to a set and back to a list with the nested constructor expression list(set(x)), you achieve two things:

• You remove all duplicates from the original list x.
• You lose all ordering information. The resulting list may (or may not) have a complete new ordering of the remaining elements.

There’s no way out: the set data structure is more efficient than the list data structure only because it’s less powerful.

It’s like compressing an image: by removing information from the original image, the new image needs less resources on your computer at the cost of having a lower quality. If you convert the lossy-compressed image (or the set for that matter) back into the original data structure, it doesn’t look the same anymore.

This highlights an important trade-off in programming: always choose the right data structure for the particular problem at hand.

Python List to Set Preserve Order

But what if you want to preserve the order when converting a list to a set (and, maybe, back)? (You’d only do this to remove duplicates).

I’ve written a detailed article on this topic so check it out if you need more info.

Efficient Method: A shorter and more concise way is to create a dictionary out of the elements in the list to remove all duplicates and convert the dictionary back to a list. This preserves the order of the original list elements.

lst = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Bob', 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 3]
print(list(dict.fromkeys(lst)))
# ['Alice', 'Bob', 1, 2, 3]

1. Convert the list to a dictionary with dict.fromkeys(lst).
2. Convert the dictionary into a list with list(dict).

Each list element becomes a new key to the dictionary. For example, the list [1, 2, 3] becomes the dictionary {1:None, 2:None, 3:None}. All elements that occur multiple times will be assigned to the same key. Thus, the dictionary contains only unique keys—there cannot be multiple equal keys.

As dictionary values, you take dummy values (per default).

Then, you convert the dictionary back to a list, throwing away the dummy values.

Here’s the code:

>>> lst = [1, 1, 1, 3, 2, 5, 5, 2]
>>> dic = dict.fromkeys(lst)
>>> dic
{1: None, 3: None, 2: None, 5: None}
>>> duplicate_free = list(dic)
>>> duplicate_free
[1, 3, 2, 5]

This way, you can simply use the ordered dictionary data type.

Related blog articles:

• Python Remove Duplicates From List of Lists
• Python List Remove
• The Ultimate Guide to Python Dictionaries!

Python List to Set Error: Unhashable Type List

A common error is to try to convert a set to a list with unhashable data types. Here’s what happens if you try to convert a list of lists into a set:

users = [['Alice', 23, 'female'], ['Bob', 26, 'male'], ['Ann', 31, 'female']] s = set(users)
print(s)

The result is an error message unhashable type: 'list'.

'''
Traceback (most recent call last): File "C:\Users\xcent\Desktop\code.py", line 6, in <module> s = set(users)
TypeError: unhashable type: 'list' '''

Why are lists unhashable?

Because they are mutable: you can change a list by appending or removing elements. If you change the list data type, the hash value changes (it is calculated based on the content of the list). This directly violates the definition that a “hash value […] never changes during its lifetime” (see here).

Key takeaway: mutable data types are not hashable. Therefore, you cannot use them in sets.

So, how to solve it? Simply convert the inner lists into an immutable collection type such as a tuple:

users = [('Alice', 23, 'female'), ('Bob', 26, 'male'), ('Ann', 31, 'female')] s = set(users)
print(s)
# {('Bob', 26, 'male'),
# ('Ann', 31, 'female'),
# ('Alice', 23, 'female')}

Now, the result is a set of tuple elements. As tuples are immutable, the hash value will never change and you can create a set out of them.

Where to Go From Here?

Enough theory, let’s get some practice!

To become successful in coding, you need to get out there and solve real problems for real people. That’s how you can become a six-figure earner easily. And that’s how you polish the skills you really need in practice. After all, what’s the use of learning theory that nobody ever needs?

Practice projects is how you sharpen your saw in coding!

Do you want to become a code master by focusing on practical code projects that actually earn you money and solve problems for people?

Then become a Python freelance developer! It’s the best way of approaching the task of improving your Python skills—even if you are a complete beginner.

Join my free webinar “How to Build Your High-Income Skill Python” and watch how I grew my coding business online and how you can, too—from the comfort of your own home.

Join the free webinar now!

Problem: Given a dictionary and a filter condition. How to filter a dictionary by …

• … key so that only those (key, value) pairs in the dictionary remain where the key satisfies the condition?
• … value so that only those (key, value) pairs remain where the value satisfies the condition?

In this tutorial, you’ll learn four methods and how they compare against each other. It’s loosely based on this tutorial but extends it by many additional examples and code explanations.

If you’re too busy to read this tutorial, here’s the spoiler:

Method 4 — Dictionary comprehension {k:v for (k,v) in dict.items() if condition} is the most Pythonic and fastest way to filter a dictionary in Python.

However, by reading this short 8-minute tutorial, you’re going to learn a lot about the nuances of writing Pythonic code. So keep reading!

Method 1: Simple Iteration to Filter Dictionary

You should always start with the simplest method to solve a problem (see Occam’s razor) because premature optimization is the root of all evil!

So let’s have a look at the straightforward loop iteration method to filter a dictionary.

You start with the following dictionary of names:

names = {1: 'Alice', 2: 'Bob', 3: 'Carl', 4: 'Ann', 5: 'Liz'}

Filter Python Dictionary By Key (Simple Loop)

You want to keep those (key, value) pairs where key meets a certain condition (such as key%2 == 1).

newDict = dict() # Iterate over all (k,v) pairs in names
for key, value in names.items(): # Is condition satisfied? if key%2 == 1: newDict[key] = value

Let’s have a look at the output:

print(newDict)
# {1: 'Alice', 3: 'Carl', 5: 'Liz'}

Only the (key, value) pairs where the key is an odd integer remain in the filtered dictionary newDict.

But what if you want to filter the dictionary by a condition on the values?

Filter Python Dictionary By Value (Simple Loop)

To filter by value, you only need to replace one line in the previous code snippet: instead of writing if key%2 == 1: ..., you use the value to determine whether to add a certain (key, value) pair: if len(value)<5: ....

newDict = dict() # Iterate over all (k,v) pairs in names
for key, value in names.items(): # Is condition satisfied? if len(value)<5: newDict[key] = value print(newDict)
# {2: 'Bob', 3: 'Carl', 4: 'Ann', 5: 'Liz'}

Only the dictionary (key, value) pairs remain in the filtered dictionary newDict where the length of the name string value is less than five characters.

Try It Yourself in Our Interactive Cod Shell (Click “run”):

Now, you know the basic method of filtering a dictionary in Python (by key and by value). But can we do better? What if you need to filter many dictionaries by many different filtering conditions? Do we have to rewrite the same code again and again?

The answer is no! Read on to learn about a more generic way to make filtering a dictionary as easy as calling a function passing the dictionary and the filter function.

Method 2: Generic Function to Filter Dictionary

How can you use different filtering functions on different dictionaries without writing the same code again and again? The answer is simple: create your own generic filtering function!

Your goal is to create a function filter_dict(dictionary, filter_func) that takes a dictionary to be filtered and a filter_func to determine for each (key, value) pair whether it should be included in the filtered dictionary.

You start with the following dictionary of names:

names = {1: 'Alice', 2: 'Bob', 3: 'Carl', 4: 'Ann', 5: 'Liz'}

Let’s create the generic filter function!

def filter_dict(d, f): ''' Filters dictionary d by function f. ''' newDict = dict() # Iterate over all (k,v) pairs in names for key, value in d.items(): # Is condition satisfied? if f(key, value): newDict[key] = value return newDict

The function takes two arguments: the dictionary d to be filtered and the function f that decides if an element should be included in the new dictionary.

You create an empty dictionary newDict and decide for all elements of the original dictionary d whether they should be included. To accomplish this, you iterate over each original (key, value) pair and pass it to the function f: key, value --> Boolean. The function f returns a Boolean value. If it evaluates to True, the (key, value) pair is added to the new dictionary. Otherwise, it’s skipped. The return value is the newly created dictionary newDict.

Here’s how you can use the filtering function to filter by key:

Filter Python Dictionary By Key Using Generic Function

If you want to accomplish the same thing as above—filtering by key to include only odd keys—you simply use the following one-liner call:

print(filter_dict(names, lambda k,v: k%2 == 1))
# {1: 'Alice', 3: 'Carl', 5: 'Liz'}

That was easy! The lambda function you pass returns k%2 == 1 which is the Boolean filtering value associated to each original element in the dictionary names.

Similarly, if you want to filter by key to include only even key, you’d do the following:

print(filter_dict(names, lambda k,v: k%2 == 0))
# {2: 'Bob', 4: 'Ann'}

In fact, it’s equally convenient to filter by value using this exact same strategy:

Filter Python Dictionary By Value Using Generic Function

Here’s how you use our function filter_dict to filter by value:

print(filter_dict(names, lambda k,v: len(v)<5))
# {2: 'Bob', 3: 'Carl', 4: 'Ann', 5: 'Liz'}

In the previous code snippet, you filter the dictionary so that only those (key, value) pairs remain where the value has less than five characters.

print(filter_dict(names, lambda k,v: v.startswith('A')))
# {1: 'Alice', 4: 'Ann'}

In this code snippet, you filter the dictionary so that only those (key, value) pairs remain where the value starts with character 'A'.

Try It Yourself in Our Interactive Cod Shell (Click “run”):

But is this the most Pythonic way? Hardly so! Read on to learn about a functional approach to accomplish the same thing with less code!

(More with less in Python is usually a good thing… Check out my book “Python One-Liners” to master the art of compressing complicated code into a single line.)

Method 3: filter() Function on Dictionary

The filter(function, iterable) function takes a function as input that takes one argument (an element of an iterable) and returns a Boolean value whether this element should pass the filter. All elements that pass the filter are returned as a new iterable object (a filter object).

You can use the lambda function statement to create the function right where you pass it as an argument. The syntax of the lambda function is lambda x: expression and it means that you use x as an input argument and you return expression as a result (that can or cannot use x to decide about the return value). For more information, see my detailed blog article about the lambda function.

Filter Python Dictionary By Key Using filter() + Lambda Functions

Here’s how you can filter a dictionary by key using only a single line of code (without defining your custom filter function as in method 2):

# FILTER BY KEY
print(dict(filter(lambda x: x[0]%2 == 1, names.items())))
# {1: 'Alice', 3: 'Carl', 5: 'Liz'}

You may recognize the same filter lambda function lambda x: x[0]%2 == 1 that returns True if the key is an odd integer. Note that this lambda function takes only a single input as this is how the filter() function works (it requires that you pass a function object that takes one argument and maps it to a Boolean value).

You operate on the iterable names.items() that gives you all (key, value) pairs (an element of the iterable is a (key, value) tuple).

After filtering, you convert the filter object back to a dictionary using the dict(...) constructor function.

Another example:

print(dict(filter(lambda x: x[0]%2 == 0, names.items())))
# {2: 'Bob', 4: 'Ann'}

Let’s see how this works for filtering by value:

Filter Python Dictionary By Value Using filter() + Lambda Functions

You can use the same basic idea—filter() + lambda + dict()—to filter a dictionary by value. For example, if you want to filter out all (key, value) pairs where the value has less than five characters, use the following one-liner:

print(dict(filter(lambda x: len(x[1])<5, names.items())))
# {2: 'Bob', 3: 'Carl', 4: 'Ann', 5: 'Liz'}

And a second example:

print(dict(filter(lambda x: x[1].startswith('A'), names.items())))
# {1: 'Alice', 4: 'Ann'}

Try It Yourself in Our Interactive Cod Shell (Click “run”):

So, far so good. But can we do any better? I mean, a single line of code is a single line of code, right? How can we possible improve on that?

Method 4: Filter By Dictionary Comprehension

The best way to filter a dictionary in Python is to use the powerful method of dictionary comprehension.

Dictionary comprehension allows you to transform one dictionary into another one—by modifying each (key, value) pair as you like.

Filter Python Dictionary By Key Using Dictionary Comprehension

The general framework for dictionary comprehension is { expression context }.

• expression defines how you would like to change each (key, value) pair.
• context defines the (key, value) pairs, you’d like to include in the new dictionary.

Here’s a practical example that filters all (key, value) pairs with odd keys:

print({k:v for (k,v) in names.items() if k%2 == 1})
# {1: 'Alice', 3: 'Carl', 5: 'Liz'}

And here’s an example that filters all (key, value) pairs with even keys:

print({k:v for (k,v) in names.items() if k%2 == 0})
# {2: 'Bob', 4: 'Ann'}

Let’s look at dictionary filtering by value! Is it any different?

Filter Python Dictionary By Value Using Dictionary Comprehension

No! It’s exactly the same:

print({k:v for (k,v) in names.items() if len(v)<5})
# {2: 'Bob', 3: 'Carl', 4: 'Ann', 5: 'Liz'}

This powerful framework is not only fast and easy to understand, it’s also concise and consistent. The filtering criteria is the last part of the expression so that you can quickly grasp how it’s filtered:

print({k:v for (k,v) in names.items() if v.startswith('A')})
# {1: 'Alice', 4: 'Ann'}

Try It Yourself in Our Interactive Cod Shell (Click “run”):

Related tutorials:

• How to Filter a List of Lists in Python?
• Python Lists filter() vs List Comprehension – Which is Faster?
• How to Filter a List in Python?
• How to Filter a List of Dictionaries in Python?
• How to Filter in Python Using Lambda Functions?

All Four Methods for Copy&Paste

Here are all four methods from the tutorial to simplify copy&pasting:

names = {1: 'Alice', 2: 'Bob', 3: 'Carl', 4: 'Ann', 5: 'Liz'} ''' Method 1: Simple For Loop ''' # FILTER BY KEY
newDict = dict() # Iterate over all (k,v) pairs in names
for key, value in names.items(): # Is condition satisfied? if key%2 == 1: newDict[key] = value print(newDict)
# {1: 'Alice', 3: 'Carl', 5: 'Liz'} # FILTER BY VALUE
newDict = dict() # Iterate over all (k,v) pairs in names
for key, value in names.items(): # Is condition satisfied? if len(value)<5: newDict[key] = value print(newDict)
# {2: 'Bob', 3: 'Carl', 4: 'Ann', 5: 'Liz'} ''' Method 2: Custom Function ''' def filter_dict(d, f): ''' Filters dictionary d by function f. ''' newDict = dict() # Iterate over all (k,v) pairs in names for key, value in d.items(): # Is condition satisfied? if f(key, value): newDict[key] = value return newDict # FILTER BY KEY
print(filter_dict(names, lambda k,v: k%2 == 1))
print(filter_dict(names, lambda k,v: k%2 == 0)) # FILTER BY VALUE
print(filter_dict(names, lambda k,v: len(v)<5))
print(filter_dict(names, lambda k,v: v.startswith('A'))) ''' Method 3: filter() ''' # FILTER BY KEY
print(dict(filter(lambda x: x[0]%2 == 1, names.items())))
print(dict(filter(lambda x: x[0]%2 == 0, names.items()))) # FITER BY VALUE
print(dict(filter(lambda x: len(x[1])<5, names.items())))
print(dict(filter(lambda x: x[1].startswith('A'), names.items()))) ''' Method 4: Dict Comprehension ''' # FITER BY KEY
print({k:v for (k,v) in names.items() if k%2 == 1})
print({k:v for (k,v) in names.items() if k%2 == 0}) # FITER BY VALUE
print({k:v for (k,v) in names.items() if len(v)<5})
print({k:v for (k,v) in names.items() if v.startswith('A')})

But how do all of those methods compare in terms of algorithmic complexity and runtime? Let’s see…

Algorithmic Analysis

Before we benchmark those methods against each other, let’s quickly discuss computational complexity.

All four methods have linear runtime complexity in the number of elements in the original dictionary to be filtered—assuming that the filtering condition itself has constant runtime complexity (it’s independent of the number of elements in the dictionary).

Method	Complexity
Method 1: Loop	O(n)
Method 2: Custom	O(n)
Method 3: filter()	O(n)
Method 4: Dictionary Comprehension	O(n)

But this doesn’t mean that all methods are equally efficient. The dictionary comprehension is usually fastest for these types of filtering operations because it doesn’t use an intermediate function filter(). And it’s also easiest to understand. Therefore, you should use dictionary comprehension in your own code to filter a dictionary by key or by value!

Where to Go From Here?

Enough theory, let’s get some practice!

To become successful in coding, you need to get out there and solve real problems for real people. That’s how you can become a six-figure earner easily. And that’s how you polish the skills you really need in practice. After all, what’s the use of learning theory that nobody ever needs?

Practice projects is how you sharpen your saw in coding!

Do you want to become a code master by focusing on practical code projects that actually earn you money and solve problems for people?

Then become a Python freelance developer! It’s the best way of approaching the task of improving your Python skills—even if you are a complete beginner.

Join my free webinar “How to Build Your High-Income Skill Python” and watch how I grew my coding business online and how you can, too—from the comfort of your own home.

Join the free webinar now!

What’s the runtime complexity of various list methods?

The following table summarizes the runtime complexity of all list methods.

Assume that the length of the data type is defined as n (that is—len(data_type)). You can now categorize the asymptotic complexity of the different complexity functions as follows:

Operation	Example	Complexity
Index	l[i]	O(1)
Store	l[i] = 42	O(1)
Length	len(l)	O(1)
Append	l.append(42)	O(1)
Pop	l.pop()	O(1)
Clear	l.clear()	O(1)
Slicing	l[a:b]	O(b-a)
Extend	l1.extend(l2)	O(len(l1)+len(l2))
Constructor	list(iter)	O(len(iter))
Equality	l1 == l2	O(n)
Slice Assign	l[a:b] = ...	O(n)
Delete	del l[i]	O(n)
Remove	l.remove(...)	O(n)
Membership	x in l / x not in l	O(n)
Copy	l.copy()	O(n)
Pop	l.pop(0)	O(n)
Min	min(l)	O(n)
Max	max(l)	O(n)
Reverse	l.reverse()	O(n)
Iterate	for x in l:	O(n)
Sort	l.sort()	O(n log(n))
Multiply	l*k	O(n k)

Need to learn more about these methods? Watch me giving you a quick overview of all Python list methods:

You can read more about all methods in my detailed tutorial on the Finxter blog.

Here’s your free PDF cheat sheet showing you all Python list methods on one simple page. Click the image to download the high-resolution PDF file, print it, and post it to your office wall:

Where to Go From Here?

Enough theory, let’s get some practice!

To become successful in coding, you need to get out there and solve real problems for real people. That’s how you can become a six-figure earner easily. And that’s how you polish the skills you really need in practice. After all, what’s the use of learning theory that nobody ever needs?

Practice projects is how you sharpen your saw in coding!

Do you want to become a code master by focusing on practical code projects that actually earn you money and solve problems for people?

Then become a Python freelance developer! It’s the best way of approaching the task of improving your Python skills—even if you are a complete beginner.

Join my free webinar “How to Build Your High-Income Skill Python” and watch how I grew my coding business online and how you can, too—from the comfort of your own home.

Join the free webinar now!

In this tutorial, you’ll learn the runtime complexity of different Python operations.

Then, you’ll learn how to calculate the complexity of your own function by combining the complexity classes of its constituents. This is called “static analysis”

The tutorial is loosely based on (source) but it extends it significantly with more practical examples, interactive snippets, and explanatory material.

Introducing Big-O

Definition: The complexity of an operation (or an algorithm for that matter) is the number of resources that are needed to run it (source). Resources can be time (runtime complexity) or space (memory complexity).

So, how can you measure the complexity of an algorithm? In most cases, the complexity of an algorithm is not static. It varies with the size of the input to the algorithm or the operation.

For example, the list method list.sort() has one input argument: the list object to be sorted. The runtime complexity is not constant, it increases with increasing size of the list. If there are more elements to be sorted, the runtime of the algorithm increases.

Complexity Function

Given input size n, you can describe the complexity of your algorithm with a function of the input n → f(n) that defines the number of “resource units” (e.g., time, memory) needed to finish it (worst-case or average-case).

Say, you’ve got three implementations to sort a list: implementation_1, implementation_2, implementation_3.

The figure shows the three complexity functions. The x axis measures the input size (in our example, it would be the list size). The y axis measures the complexity with respect to this input.

• implementation_1 has a quadratic complexity function f(n) = n².
• implementation_2 has a quadratic complexity function f(n) = 2n².
• implementation_3 has a logarithmic complexity function f(n) = n log(n).

You can see the code we used to generate this plot here:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import math implementation_1 = [n**2 for n in range(1, 100, 10)]
implementation_2 = [2*n**2 for n in range(1, 100, 10)]
implementation_3 = [n*math.log(n) for n in range(1, 100, 10)] plt.plot(implementation_1, '--.', label='implementation 1')
plt.plot(implementation_2, '-o', label='implementation 2')
plt.plot(implementation_3, '-x', label='implementation 3') plt.legend()
plt.xlabel('Input (ex: List Size)')
plt.ylabel('Complexity (ex: Runtime)')
plt.grid()
plt.show()

Of course, it’s good to waste as little resources as possible so the logarithmic complexity function is superior to the quadratic complexity functions.

Big-O Notation

For large inputs, the runtime behavior will be dominated by the part of the complexity function that grows fastest. For example, a quadratic runtime complexity function f(n) = 1000n² + 100000n + 999 will be much better than a cubic runtime complexity function g(n) = 0.1n³.

Why? Because sooner or later the function g(n) will produce much higher values than f(n) as the input size n increases.

In fact, you can argue that the only important part of a complexity function is the part that grows fastest with increasing input size.

This is exactly what’s the Big-O notation is all about:

The Big O notation characterizes functions according to their growth rates: different functions with the same growth rate may be represented using the same O notation. (wiki)

Roughly speaking, you remove everything but the fastest-growing term from the complexity function. This allows you to quickly compare different algorithms against each other.

To show this, have a look at our two examples:

• Complexity function f(n) = 1000n² + 100000n + 999 grows like O(n²).
• Complexity function g(n) = 0.1n³ grows like O(n³).

By reducing the complexity function to its asymptotic growth, you can immediately see that the former is superior to the latter in terms of runtime complexity—without being distracted by all the constant factors in front of the constituents or the constituents with smaller asymptotic growth.

Examples Big-O of Complexity Functions

So, here are a few examples of complexity functions and their asymptotic growth in Big-O notation:

Complexity Function	Asymptotic Growth
f(n) = 10000	O(1)
f(n) = n + 1000000	O(n)
f(n) = 33n + log(n)	O(n log(n))
f(n) = 33n + 4n * log(n)	O(n log(n))
f(n) = n² + n	O(n²)
f(n) = 1000n² + 100000n + 999	O(n²)
f(n) = 0.000000001n³ + 4n² + 100000n + 999	O(n³)
f(n) = n * n³ + 33n	O(n³)

You can see that the asymptotic growth of a function (in Big-O notation) is dominated by the fastest-growing term in the function equation.

Python Complexity of Operations

Let’s explore the complexity of Python operations—classified by the data structure on which you perform those operations. A great coder will always use the data structure that suits their needs best.

In general, the list data structure supports more operations than the set data structure as it keeps information about the ordering of the elements—at the cost of higher computational complexity.

Python List Complexity

Assume that the length of the data type is defined as n (that is—n = len(data_type)). You can now categorize the asymptotic complexity of the different complexity functions as follows:

Operation	Example	Complexity
Index	l[i]	O(1)
Store	l[i] = 42	O(1)
Length	len(l)	O(1)
Append	l.append(42)	O(1)
Pop	l.pop()	O(1)
Clear	l.clear()	O(1)
Slicing	l[a:b]	O(b-a)
Extend	l1.extend(l2)	O(len(l1)+len(l2))
Constructor	list(iter)	O(len(iter))
Equality	l1 == l2	O(n)
Slice Assign	l[a:b] = ...	O(n)
Delete	del l[i]	O(n)
Remove	l.remove(...)	O(n)
Membership	x in l / x not in l	O(n)
Copy	l.copy()	O(n)
Pop	l.pop(0)	O(n)
Min	min(l)	O(n)
Max	max(l)	O(n)
Reverse	l.reverse()	O(n)
Iterate	for x in l:	O(n)
Sort	l.sort()	O(n log(n))
Multiply	l*k	O(n k)

Tuples are similar as lists—with a few exceptions: you cannot modify a tuple because they are immutable.

Let’s consider another important data structure:

Python Set Complexity

Assume that the length of the data type is defined as n (that is—n = len(data_type)). If there are two sets in a single operation such as s1 == s2, the lengths are given by the variables n1 and n2. You can now categorize the asymptotic complexity of the different complexity functions as follows:

Operation	Example	Complexity
Length	len(s)	O(1)
Add	s.add(42)	O(1)
Membership	42 in s / 42 not in s	O(1)
Remove	s.remove(42)	O(1)
Pop	s.pop()	O(1)
Clear	s.clear()	O(1)
Constructor	set(iter)	O(n)
Equality	s1 == s2 / s1 != s2	O(min(n1, n2))
Union	s1 | s2	O(n1+n2)
Intersection	s1 & s2	O(min(n1, n2))
Difference	s1 - s2	O(n2)
Symmetric Difference	s1 ^ s2	O(n1)
Iteration	for x in s:	O(n)
Copy	s.copy()	O(n)

I highlighted the set operations that are more efficient than the corresponding list operations. The reason for those being O(1) rather than O(n) is that the list data structure also maintains the ordering of the elements—which incurs additional overhead.

Python Dictionary Complexity

Now, have a look at the time complexity of Python dictionary operations:

Operation	Example	Complexity
Index (Get)	dict[k]	O(1)
Store	dict[k] = v	O(1)
Length	len(dict)	O(1)
Delete	del dict[key]	O(1)
Pop	dict.pop(k)	O(1)
Clear	dict.clear()	O(1)
Keys	dict.keys()	O(1)
Construction	dict(...)	O(n)
Iteration	for k in dict:	O(n)

Most operations are O(1) because Python dictionaries share multiple properties of Python sets (such as fast membership operation).

Composing Complexity Classes

Now, you know the complexity of different operations. But how do you obtain the complexity of your algorithm?

The concept is simple: you break the big problem (knowing the complexity of the whole algorithm) into a series of smaller problems (knowing the complexity of individual operations).

Then, you recombine the individual operation’s complexities to obtain the solution to the big problem.

How? Let’s start with a small example: you first get a list from a dictionary of list values. Then you sort the list:

d = {1: [3, 1, 2, 4], 2: [4, 4, 1, 9]} lst = d.get(1)
lst.sort()
print(lst)
# [1, 2, 3, 4]

Try it yourself in our interactive code shell (click “run” to execute the code):

You have four operations in the code snippet. Let’s annotate each operation with a complexity class.

# Operation 1: Dictionary Creation --> O(n)
d = {1: [3, 1, 2, 4], 2: [4, 4, 1, 9]} # Operation 2: Dictionary Get --> O(1)
lst = d.get(1) # Operation 3: List Sorting --> O(n log n)
lst.sort() # Operation 4: Print List --> O(n)
print(lst)

Knowing the complexity classes of the different operations, you can recombine it as follows:

O(n) + O(1) + O(n log n) + O(n)
(1) = O(n + 1 + n log n + n)
(2) = O(n log n + 2n + 1)
(3) = O(n log n)

You see in Equation (1) what you could call the “chain rule of complexity analysis”: O(f(n)) + O(g(n)) = O(f(n) + g(n)).

You can see in Equation (3) that the Big-O notation focuses only on the largest growing term. In our case, O(n log n) grows faster than O(2n).

Here are two important examples of Big-O recombination:

• O(f(n)) + O(f(n)) = O(f(n) + f(n)) = O(2f(n)) = O(f(n). In other words, Executing an operation a constant (fixed) number of times, doesn’t change the overall complexity of the algorithm.
• O(f(n) + g(n)) = O(f(n)) if the complexity function f(n) grows faster than g(n). An example is O(n³ + 1000n³) = O(n³).

In programming, you can also have conditional execution:

if condition: f(n)
else: g(n)

You can recombine the complexity class of the overall code snippet as follows: O(max(f(n), g(n)). Roughly speaking, (if the condition can be true), the complexity of the conditional execution is the maximum of both blocks f(n) or g(n).

Example:

if lst: lst.sort()
else: lst = [1, 2, 3, 4]

The complexity is O(n log n) because it grows faster than O(n) — the complexity of the block in the else statement.

Another possibility is to repeatedly execute a certain function (e.g., in a for loop).

If you repeat function f(n) m times, the computational complexity is m * O(f(n)) = O(m f(n)). If m is a constant, the computational complexity simplifies to O(f(n)).

Where to Go From Here?

Enough theory, let’s get some practice!

To become successful in coding, you need to get out there and solve real problems for real people. That’s how you can become a six-figure earner easily. And that’s how you polish the skills you really need in practice. After all, what’s the use of learning theory that nobody ever needs?

Practice projects is how you sharpen your saw in coding!

Do you want to become a code master by focusing on practical code projects that actually earn you money and solve problems for people?

Then become a Python freelance developer! It’s the best way of approaching the task of improving your Python skills—even if you are a complete beginner.

Join my free webinar “How to Build Your High-Income Skill Python” and watch how I grew my coding business online and how you can, too—from the comfort of your own home.

Join the free webinar now!