Category: Programming

I just got an early copy of Prof. Porter’s and Prof. Zingaro’s “Learn AI-Assisted Python Programming with GitHub Copilot and ChatGPT”. In this quick blog, I’ll share my 5-star review:

Programming in 2023 looks a lot different than programming in 2022. The transformational development of powerful large language models (LLMs) has brought new challenges and exciting opportunities to coders like you and me.

The good news is that in ‘Learn AI-Assisted Python Programming’, Professors Leo Porter and Daniel Zingaro teach us how to use modern AI technology based on large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT and GitHub Copilot to write better Python code.

You’ll learn about the transformative impact of AI code assistants on programming. You’ll set up GitHub Copilot and Python, then dive into sports data analysis. You’ll grasp functions, understand Python code reading, and master testing and prompt engineering. You’ll simplify complex challenges with top-down design, debug with precision, automate various tasks, design games, and harness prompt patterns for enhanced AI assistance.

I enjoyed the fresh and light explanations that don’t read like an academic paper but a conversation with your friend (who happens to be a computer science professor and best-selling authority in Python and ChatGPT).

The depth of knowledge is palpable on every page.

But beyond the technical, it’s their stand against tech elitism and their genuine care for student success that resonated with me the most.

After reading the chapters, I found myself coding more efficiently with Copilot. I feel more confident with this powerful new technology. Highly recommended read for every software developer and tech enthusiast!

You can get your copy here (no affiliate link): https://www.amazon.de/-/en/Leo-Porter/dp/1633437787

The post [Book Review] Learn AI-Assisted Python Programming with GitHub Copilot and ChatGPT appeared first on Be on the Right Side of Change.

As a Python developer, you may often deal with making HTTP requests to interact with APIs or to retrieve information from web pages. By default, these requests can be slow and block your program’s execution, making your code less efficient.

This is where Python’s async requests come to the rescue. Asynchronous HTTP requests allow your program to continue executing other tasks while waiting for the slower request operations to complete, improving your code’s overall performance and response time significantly.

The core of this non-blocking approach in Python relies on the asyncio and aiohttp libraries, which provide the necessary tools to perform efficiently and asynchronously. Using these libraries, you can build powerful async HTTP clients to handle multiple requests concurrently without stalling your program’s main thread.

Incorporating Python async requests into your projects can help you tackle complex web scraping scenarios, handling tasks like rate limiting and error recovery.

First Things First: Understanding Asynchronous Requests

Basic Principles of Asynchronous Requests

Asynchronous requests play a crucial role in improving the efficiency of your code when dealing with network tasks.

When you send an asynchronous request, your program can continue executing other tasks without waiting for the request to complete.

This is possible because of the async/await syntax in Python, which allows you to write asynchronous code more easily. In essence, this keyword pair breaks down asynchronous code into smaller, manageable pieces to provide better readability and maintainability.

Here’s a brief explanation of async and await:

• async: This keyword is used to define a function as asynchronous, which means it’s able to run concurrently with other tasks in your code.
• await: This keyword is used within an async function to wait for the async function’s result, allowing other tasks to proceed in the meantime.

Here’s a simple example showcasing the async/await syntax:

import asyncio async def example_async_function(): print("Task is starting") await asyncio.sleep(1) print("Task is complete") async def main(): task = asyncio.create_task(example_async_function()) await task asyncio.run(main())

Synchronous vs Asynchronous Requests

When working with network requests, it’s important to understand the difference between synchronous and asynchronous requests.

Synchronous requests involve waiting for the response of each request before proceeding, and it’s a typical way to handle requests in Python. However, this can lead to slower execution times, especially when dealing with numerous requests or slow network responses.

Asynchronous requests allow you to send multiple requests at the same time, without waiting for their individual responses. This means your program can continue with other tasks while the requests are being processed, significantly improving performance in network-intensive scenarios.

Here’s a basic comparison between synchronous and asynchronous requests:

• Synchronous Requests:
  • Send a request and wait for its response
  • Block the execution of other tasks while waiting
  • Can cause delays if there are many requests or slow network responses
• Asynchronous Requests:
  • Send multiple requests concurrently
  • Don’t block the execution of other tasks while waiting for responses
  • Improve performance in network-heavy scenarios

For example, the popular requests library in Python handles synchronous requests, while libraries like aiohttp handle asynchronous requests. If you’re working with multiple network requests in your code, it’s highly recommended to implement async/await for optimal efficiency and performance.

Python and Asyncio

Understanding Asyncio

Asyncio is a library introduced in Python 3.4 and has evolved rapidly, especially till Python 3.7. It provides a foundation for writing asynchronous code using the async/await syntax. With asyncio, you can execute concurrent programming in Python, making your code more efficient and responsive.

The library is structured around coroutines, an approach that allows concurrent execution of multiple tasks within an event loop. A coroutine is a specialized version of a Python generator function that can suspend and resume its execution. By leveraging coroutines, you can execute multiple tasks concurrently without threading or multiprocessing.

Asyncio makes use of futures to represent the results of computations that may not have completed yet. Using asyncio’s coroutine function, you can create coroutines that perform asynchronous tasks, like making HTTP requests or handling I/O operations.

Using Asyncio in Python

To utilize asyncio in your Python projects, your code must incorporate the asyncio library. The primary method of executing asynchronous tasks is by using an event loop. In Python 3.7 and later, you can use asyncio.run() to create and manage the event loop for you.

With asyncio, you can declare a function as a coroutine by using the async keyword. To call a coroutine, use the await keyword, which allows the coroutine to yield control back to the event loop and continue with other tasks.

Here’s an example of using asyncio:

import asyncio async def greet(name, delay): await asyncio.sleep(delay) print(f"Hello, {name}!") async def main(): task1 = asyncio.ensure_future(greet("Alice", 1)) task2 = asyncio.ensure_future(greet("Bob", 2)) await task1 await task2 asyncio.run(main())

In the example above, we created two asyncio tasks and added them to the event loop using asyncio.ensure_future(). When await is encountered, the coroutine is suspended, and the event loop can switch to another task. This continues until all tasks in the event loop are complete.

Now let’s get to the meat.

Using the Requests Library for Synchronous HTTP Requests

The requests library is a popular choice for making HTTP requests in Python. However, it’s primarily designed for synchronous operations, which means it may not be the best choice for handling asynchronous requests.

To make a simple synchronous GET request using the requests library, you would do the following:

import requests response = requests.get('https://api.example.com/data')
print(response.content)

While the requests library is powerful and easy to use, it doesn’t natively support asynchronous requests. This can be a limitation when you have to make multiple requests concurrently to improve performance and reduce waiting time.

Asynchronous HTTP Requests with HTTPX

HTTPX is a fully featured HTTP client for Python, providing both synchronous and asynchronous APIs. With support for HTTP/1.1 and HTTP/2, it is a modern alternative to the popular Python requests library.

Why Use HTTPX?

HTTPX offers improved efficiency, performance, and additional features compared to other HTTP clients. Its interface is similar to requests, making it easy to switch between the two libraries. Moreover, HTTPX supports asynchronous HTTP requests, allowing your application to perform better in scenarios with numerous concurrent tasks.

HTTPX Asynchronous Requests

To leverage the asynchronous features of HTTPX, you can use the httpx.AsyncClient class. This enables you to make non-blocking HTTP requests using Python’s asyncio library. Asynchronous requests can provide significant performance benefits and enable the use of long-lived network connections, such as WebSockets.

Here is an example to demonstrate how async requests can be made using httpx.AsyncClient:

import httpx
import asyncio async def fetch(url): async with httpx.AsyncClient() as client: response = await client.get(url) return response.text async def main(): urls = ['https://www.google.com', 'https://www.example.com'] tasks = [fetch(url) for url in urls] contents = await asyncio.gather(*tasks) for content in contents: print(content[:1000]) # Print the first 1000 characters of each response asyncio.run(main())

Here’s a breakdown of the code:

1. fetch: This asynchronous function fetches the content of a given URL.
2. main: This asynchronous function initializes the tasks to fetch content from a list of URLs and then gathers the results.
3. asyncio.run(main()): This runs the main asynchronous function.

The code will fetch the content of the URLs in urls concurrently and print the first 1000 characters of each response. Adjust as needed for your use case!

Managing Sessions and Connections

Session Management in Async Requests

When working with asynchronous requests in Python, you can use sessions to manage connections. The aiohttp.ClientSession class is designed to handle multiple requests and maintain connection pools.

To get started, create an instance of the aiohttp.ClientSession class:

import aiohttp async with aiohttp.ClientSession() as session: # Your asynchronous requests go here

Using the with statement ensures that the session is properly closed when the block is exited. Within the async with block, you can send multiple requests using the same session object. This is beneficial if you are interacting with the same server or service, as it can reuse connections and reduce overhead.

Connection Management with TCPConnector

Besides sessions, one way to manage connections is by using the aiohttp.TCPConnector class. The TCPConnector class helps in controlling the behavior of connections, such as limiting the number of simultaneous connections, setting connection timeouts, and configuring SSL settings.

Here is how you can create a custom TCPConnector and use it with your ClientSession:

import aiohttp connector = aiohttp.TCPConnector(limit=10, ssl=True)
async with aiohttp.ClientSession(connector=connector) as session: # Your asynchronous requests go here

In this example, the TCPConnector is set to limit the number of concurrent connections to 10 and enforce SSL connections to ensure secure communication.

Implementing Concurrency and Threading

Concurrency in Async Requests

Concurrency for efficient and fast execution of your Python programs involves overlapping the execution of multiple tasks, which is especially useful for I/O-bound tasks, where waiting for external resources can slow down your program.

One way to achieve concurrency in Python is by using asyncio. This module, built specifically for asynchronous I/O operations, allows you to use async and await keywords to manage concurrent execution of tasks without the need for threads or processes.

For example, to make multiple HTTP requests concurrently, you can use an asynchronous library like aiohttp. Combined with asyncio, your code might look like this:

import aiohttp
import asyncio async def fetch(url): async with aiohttp.ClientSession() as session: async with session.get(url) as response: return await response.text() async def main(): urls = ['https://example.com', 'https://another.example.com'] tasks = [fetch(url) for url in urls] responses = await asyncio.gather(*tasks) asyncio.run(main())

Threading in Async Requests

Another way to implement concurrency in Python is by using threads. Threading is a technique that allows your code to run concurrently by splitting it into multiple lightweight threads of execution. The threading module provides features to create and manage threads easily.

For instance, if you want to use threads to make multiple HTTP requests simultaneously, you can employ the ThreadPoolExecutor from the concurrent.futures module combined with the requests library:

import requests
from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor def fetch(url): response = requests.get(url) return response.text def main(): urls = ['https://example.com', 'https://another.example.com'] with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=len(urls)) as executor: responses = list(executor.map(fetch, urls)) main()

In this example, the ThreadPoolExecutor creates a pool of worker threads that execute the fetch function concurrently. The number of threads is determined by the length of the urls list, ensuring that all requests are handled in parallel.

Working with URLs in Async Requests

When managing and manipulating URLs in async requests, you might need to handle various tasks such as encoding parameters, handling redirects, and constructing URLs properly. Thankfully, Python provides the urllib.parse module for handling URL manipulations.

For instance, you may want to add query parameters to a URL. To do this, you can use the urllib.parse.urlencode function:

from urllib.parse import urlencode, urljoin base_url = "https://api.example.com/data?"
params = {"key1": "value1", "key2": "value2"} url = urljoin(base_url, urlencode(params))

After constructing the URL with query parameters, you can pass it to your async request function:

async def main(): url = urljoin(base_url, urlencode(params)) data = await fetch_data(url) print(data) loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
loop.run_until_complete(main())

By properly handling URLs and leveraging async requests, you can efficiently fetch data in Python while maintaining a clear and organized code structure.

Handling Errors and Timeouts

Error Handling in Async Requests

When working with asynchronous requests in Python, it’s important to properly handle errors and exceptions that might occur. To do this, you can use the try and except statements. When a request fails or encounters an error, the exception will be caught in the except block, allowing you to handle the error gracefully.

For example, when using the asyncio and aiohttp libraries, you might structure your request and error handling like this:

import asyncio
import aiohttp async def fetch_url(url): try: async with aiohttp.ClientSession() as session: async with session.get(url) as response: data = await response.text() return data except Exception as e: print(f"An error occurred while fetching {url}: {str(e)}") return None results = await asyncio.gather(*[fetch_url(url) for url in urls])

In this example, if an exception is encountered during the request, the error message will be printed and the function will return None, allowing your program to continue processing other URLs.

Managing Timeouts in Async Requests

Managing timeouts in async requests is crucial to ensure requests don’t run indefinitely, consuming resources and blocking progress in your program. Setting timeouts can help prevent long waits for unresponsive servers or slow connections.

To set a timeout for your async requests, you can use the asyncio.wait_for() function. This function takes a coroutine object and a timeout value as its arguments and will raise asyncio.TimeoutError if the timeout is reached.

Here’s an example using the asyncio and aiohttp libraries:

import asyncio
import aiohttp async def fetch_url(url, timeout): try: async with aiohttp.ClientSession() as session: async with session.get(url) as response: data = await asyncio.wait_for(response.text(), timeout=timeout) return data except asyncio.TimeoutError: print(f"Timeout reached while fetching {url}") return None except Exception as e: print(f"An error occurred while fetching {url}: {str(e)}") return None results = await asyncio.gather(*[fetch_url(url, 5) for url in urls])

In this example, the requests will time out after 5 seconds, and the function will print a message indicating a timeout, then return None. This way, your program can continue processing other URLs after encountering a timeout without getting stuck in an endless wait.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do I send async HTTP requests in Python?

To send asynchronous HTTP requests in Python, you can use a library like aiohttp. This library allows you to make HTTP requests using the async and await keywords, which are built into Python 3.7 and later versions. To start, you’ll need to install aiohttp and then use it to write asynchronous functions for sending HTTP requests.

Which library should I use for asyncio in Python requests?

While the popular Requests library doesn’t support asyncio natively, you can use alternatives like aiohttp or httpx that were designed specifically for asynchronous programming. Both aiohttp and httpx allow you to utilize Python’s asyncio capabilities while providing a simple and familiar API similar to Requests.

What are the differences between aiohttp and requests?

The main differences between aiohttp and Requests lie in their approach to concurrency. aiohttp was built to work with Python’s asyncio library and uses asynchronous programming to allow for concurrent requests. On the other hand, Requests is a regular, synchronous HTTP library, which means it doesn’t inherently support concurrent requests or asynchronous programming.

How can I call multiple APIs asynchronously in Python?

By using an async-enabled HTTP library like aiohttp, you can call multiple APIs asynchronously in your Python code. First, define separate async functions for the API calls you want to make, and then use the asyncio.gather() function to combine and execute these functions concurrently. This allows you to perform several API calls at once, reducing the overall time to process the requests.

What is the use of async with statement in Python?

The async with statement in Python is an asynchronous version of the regular with statement, which is used for managing resources such as file I/O or network connections. In an async context, the async with statement allows you to enter a context manager that expects an asynchronous exit, clean up resources upon exit, and use the await keyword to work with asynchronous operations.

When should I use asynchronous programming in Python?

Asynchronous programming in Python is beneficial when you’re working with I/O-bound tasks, such as network requests, web scraping, or file operations. By using async techniques, you can execute these tasks concurrently, thus reducing the overall execution time and improving performance. However, for CPU-bound tasks, using Python’s built-in multiprocessing module or regular multi-threading might be more suitable.

Recommended: Python Async Function

The post Python Async Requests: Getting URLS Concurrently via HTTP(S) appeared first on Be on the Right Side of Change.

The LlamaIndex Python library is a mind-blowing tool that lets you easily access large language models (LLMs) from your Python applications.

Overview

LlamaIndex is a powerful tool to implement the “Retrieval Augmented Generation” (RAG) concept in practical Python code. If you want to become an exponential Python developer who wants to leverage large language models (aka. Alien Technology) to 10x your coding productivity, you’ve come to the right place.

In this tutorial, I’ll show you how to install it easily and quickly so you can use it in your own Python code bases.

Recommended: LlamaIndex Getting Started – Your First Example in Python

pip install llama-index

Alternatively, you may use any of the following commands to install llama-index, depending on your concrete environment. One is likely to work!

 If you have only one version of Python installed:
pip install llama-index  If you have Python 3 (and, possibly, other versions) installed:
pip3 install llama-index  If you don't have PIP or it doesn't work
python -m pip install llama-index
python3 -m pip install llama-index  If you have Linux and you need to fix permissions (any one):
sudo pip3 install llama-index
pip3 install llama-index --user  If you have Linux with apt
sudo apt install llama-index  If you have Windows and you have set up the py alias
py -m pip install llama-index  If you have Anaconda
conda install -c anaconda llama-index  If you have Jupyter Notebook
!pip install llama-index
!pip3 install llama-index

This will also install third-party dependencies like OpenAI; one PIP command to rule them all!

However, when using it in your own code, you’d use the lines:

import llama_index # not: llama-index # or from llama_index import VectorStoreIndex, SimpleWebPageReader

Let’s dive into the installation guides for the different operating systems and environments!

How to Install Llama Index on Windows?

To install the updated llama-index framework on your Windows machine, run the following code in your command line or Powershell:

• python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip
• python3 -m pip install --upgrade llama-index

Here’s the code for copy&pasting:

python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip
python3 -m pip install --upgrade llama-index

I really think not enough coders have a solid understanding of PowerShell. If this is you, feel free to check out the following tutorials on the Finxter blog.

Related Articles:

• Powershell Developer — Income and Opportunity
• Powershell Tutorial

How to Install Llama Index on Mac?

Open Terminal (Applications/Terminal) and run:

• xcode-select -install (You will be prompted to install the Xcode Command Line Tools)
• sudo easy_install pip
• sudo pip install llama-index
• pip install llama-index

As an alternative, you can also run the following two commands to update pip and install the Llama Index library:

python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip
python3 -m pip install --upgrade llama-index

These you have already seen before, haven’t you?

Related Article:

• Pip Commands — A Simple Guide

Recommended: I Created a ChatGPT-Powered Website Creator with ChatGPT – Here’s What I Learned

How to Install Llama Index on Linux?

To upgrade pip and install the llama-index library, you can use the following two commands, one after the other.

• python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip
• python3 -m pip install --upgrade llama-index

Here’s the code for copy&pasting:

python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip
python3 -m pip install --upgrade llama-index 

How to Install Llama Index on Ubuntu?

Upgrade pip and install the llama-index library using the following two commands, one after the other:

• python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip
• python3 -m pip install --upgrade llama-index

Here’s the code for copy&pasting:

python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip
python3 -m pip install --upgrade llama-index

How to Install Llama Index in PyCharm?

The simplest way to install llama-index in PyCharm is to open the terminal tab and run the pip install llama-index command.

This is shown in the following code:

pip install llama-index

Here’s a screenshot of the two steps:

1. Open Terminal tab in Pycharm
2. Run pip install llama-index in the terminal to install Llama Index in a virtual environment.

As an alternative, you can also search for llama-index in the package manager. Easy peasy.

How to Install Llama Index in Anaconda?

You can install the Llama Index package with Conda using the command conda install -c anaconda llama-index in your shell or terminal.

Like so:

 conda install -c anaconda llama-index

This assumes you’ve already installed conda on your computer. If you haven’t check out the installation steps on the official page.

How to Install Llama Index in VSCode?

You can install Llama Index in VSCode by using the same command pip install llama-index in your Visual Studio Code shell or terminal.

pip install llama-index

If this doesn’t work — it may raise a No module named 'llama_index' error — chances are that you’ve installed it for the wrong Python version on your system.

To check which version your VS Code environment uses, run these two commands in your Python program to check the version that executes it:

import sys
print(sys.executable)

The output will be the path to the Python installation that runs the code in VS Code.

Now, you can use this path to install Llama Index particularly for that Python version:

/path/to/vscode/python -m pip install llama-index

Wait until the installation is complete and run your code using llama-index again. It should work now!

Programmer Humor

Question: How did the programmer die in the shower? ☠

❗ Answer: They read the shampoo bottle instructions:
Lather. Rinse. Repeat.

Do you want to keep learning? Feel free to read this Finxter blog:

Recommended: LlamaIndex – What the Fuzz?

The post How to Install Llama Index in Python appeared first on Be on the Right Side of Change.

In Python, the async for construct allows you to iterate over asynchronous iterators, which yield values from asynchronous operations. You’ll use it when working with asynchronous libraries or frameworks where data fetching or processing happens asynchronously, such as reading from databases or making HTTP requests. The async for loop ensures that while waiting for data, other tasks can run concurrently, improving efficiency in I/O-bound tasks.

Here’s a minimal example:

import asyncio async def async_gen(): for i in range(3): await asyncio.sleep(1) # Simulate asynchronous I/O operation yield i async def main(): async for val in async_gen(): print(val) # To run the code: asyncio.run(main())

In this example, async_gen is an asynchronous generator that yields numbers from 0 to 2. Each number is yielded after waiting for 1 second (simulating an asynchronous operation). The main function demonstrates how to use the async for loop to iterate over the asynchronous generator.

---

Understanding Python Async Keyword

As a Python developer, you might have heard of asynchronous programming and how it can help improve the efficiency of your code.

One powerful tool for working with asynchronous code is the async for loop, which allows you to iterate through asynchronous iterators while maintaining a non-blocking execution flow. By harnessing the power of async for, you will be able to write high-performing applications that can handle multiple tasks concurrently without being slowed down by blocking operations.

The async for loop is based on the concept of asynchronous iterators, providing a mechanism to traverse through a series of awaitables while retrieving their results without blocking the rest of your program. This distinct feature sets it apart from traditional synchronous loops, and it plays an essential role in making your code concurrent and responsive, handling tasks such as network requests and other I/O-bound operations more efficiently.

To get started with async for in Python, you’ll need to use the async def keyword when creating asynchronous functions, and make use of asynchronous context managers and generators.

When you deal with asynchronous programming in Python, the async keyword plays a crucial role. Asynchronous programming allows your code to handle multiple tasks simultaneously without blocking other tasks. This is particularly useful in scenarios where tasks need to be executed concurrently without waiting for each other to finish.

The async keyword in Python signifies that a function is a coroutine. Coroutines are a way of writing asynchronous code that looks similar to synchronous code, making it easier to understand. With coroutines, you can suspend and resume the execution of a function at specific points, allowing other tasks to run concurrently.

In Python, the async keyword is used in conjunction with the await keyword. While async defines a coroutine function, await is used to call a coroutine and wait for it to complete. When you use the await keyword, the execution of the current coroutine is suspended, and other tasks are allowed to run. Once the await expression completes, the coroutine resumes its execution from where it left off.

Recommended: Python Async Await: Mastering Concurrent Programming

Here’s an example of how you might use the async and await keywords in your Python code:

import aiohttp
import asyncio async def fetch_url(url): async with aiohttp.ClientSession() as session: async with session.get(url) as response: return await response.text() async def main(): url = "https://www.example.com/" content = await fetch_url(url) print(content) asyncio.run(main())

In this example, fetch_url is a coroutine defined using the async keyword. It makes a request to a specified URL and retrieves the content. The request and response handling is done asynchronously, allowing other tasks to run while waiting for the response. The main coroutine uses await to call fetch_url and waits for it to complete before printing the content.

Async Function and Coroutine Objects

In Python, asynchronous programming relies on coroutine objects to execute code concurrently without blocking the execution flow of your program. You can create coroutine objects by defining asynchronous functions using the async def keyword. Within these async functions, you can use the await keyword to call other asynchronous functions, referred to as async/await syntax.

To begin, define your asynchronous function using the async keyword, followed by def:

async def my_async_function(): # your code here

While working with asynchronous functions, you’ll often encounter situations where you need to call other async functions. To do this, use the await keyword before the function call. This allows your program to wait for the result of the awaited function before moving on to the next line of code:

async def another_async_function(): # your code here async def my_async_function(): result = await another_async_function()

Coroutine objects are created when you call an async function, but the function doesn’t execute immediately. Instead, these coroutines can be scheduled to run concurrently using an event loop provided by the asyncio library. Here’s an example of running a coroutine using asyncio.run():

import asyncio async def my_async_function(): print("Hello, async!") asyncio.run(my_async_function())

Remember that async functions are not meant to be called directly like regular functions. Instead, they should be awaited within another async function or scheduled using an event loop.

By using coroutine objects and the async/await syntax, you can write more efficient, readable, and performant code that manages concurrency and handles I/O bound tasks effectively. Keep in mind that async functions should primarily be used for I/O-bound tasks and not for CPU-bound tasks. For CPU-bound tasks, consider using multi-threading or multi-processing instead.

The Fundamentals of AsyncIO

AsyncIO is a Python library that provides support for writing asynchronous code utilizing the async and await syntax. It allows you to write concurrent code in a single-threaded environment, which can be more efficient and easier to work with than using multiple threads.

To start using AsyncIO, you need to import asyncio in your Python script. Once imported, the core component of AsyncIO is the event loop. The event loop manages and schedules the execution of coroutines, which are special functions designed to work with asynchronous code. They are defined using the async def syntax.

Creating a coroutine is simple. For instance, here’s a basic example:

import asyncio async def my_coroutine(): print("Hello AsyncIO!") asyncio.run(my_coroutine())

In this example, my_coroutine is a coroutine that just prints a message. The asyncio.run() function is used to start and run the event loop, which in turn executes the coroutine.

Coroutines play a crucial role in writing asynchronous code with AsyncIO. Instead of using callbacks or threads, coroutines use the await keyword to temporarily suspend their execution, allowing other tasks to run concurrently. This cooperative multitasking approach lets you write efficient, non-blocking code.

Here is an example showcasing the use of await:

import asyncio async def say_after(delay, message): await asyncio.sleep(delay) print(message) async def main(): await say_after(1, "Hello") await say_after(2, "AsyncIO!") asyncio.run(main()) 

In this example, the say_after coroutine takes two parameters: delay and message. The await asyncio.sleep(delay) line is used to pause the execution of the coroutine for the specified number of seconds. After the pause, the message is printed. The main coroutine is responsible for running two instances of say_after, and the whole script is run via asyncio.run(main()).

Asynchronous For Loop

In Python, you can use the async for statement to iterate asynchronously over items in a collection. It allows you to perform non-blocking iteration, making your code more efficient when handling tasks such as fetching data from APIs or handling user inputs in a graphical user interface.

In order to create an asynchronous iterator, you need to define an object with an __aiter__() method that returns itself, and an __anext__() method which is responsible for providing the next item in the collection.

For example:

class AsyncRange: def __init__(self, start, end): self.start = start self.end = end def __aiter__(self): return self async def __anext__(self): if self.start >= self.end: raise StopAsyncIteration current = self.start self.start += 1 return current

Once you have your asynchronous iterator, you can use the async for loop to iterate over the items in a non-blocking manner. Here is an example showcasing the usage of the AsyncRange iterator:

import asyncio async def main(): async for number in AsyncRange(0, 5): print(number) await asyncio.sleep(1) asyncio.run(main())

In this example, the AsyncRange iterator is used in an async for loop, where each iteration in the loop pauses for one second using the await asyncio.sleep(1) line. Despite the delay, the loop doesn’t block the execution of other tasks because it is asynchronous.

It’s important to remember that the async for, __aiter__(), and __anext__() constructs should be used only in asynchronous contexts, such as in coroutines or with async context managers.

By utilizing the asynchronous for loop, you can write more efficient Python code that takes full advantage of the asynchronous programming paradigm. This comes in handy when dealing with multiple tasks that need to be executed concurrently and in non-blocking ways.

Using Async with Statement

When working with asynchronous programming in Python, you might come across the async with statement. This statement is specifically designed for creating and utilizing asynchronous context managers. Asynchronous context managers are able to suspend execution in their __enter__ and __exit__ methods, providing an effective way to manage resources in a concurrent environment.

To use the async with statement, first, you need to define an asynchronous context manager. This can be done by implementing an __aenter__ and an __aexit__ method in your class, which are the asynchronous counterparts of the synchronous __enter__ and __exit__ methods used in regular context managers.

The __aenter__ method is responsible for entering the asynchronous context, while the __aexit__ method takes care of exiting the context and performing cleanup operations.

Here’s a simple example to illustrate the usage of the async with statement:

import aiohttp
import asyncio async def fetch_data(url): async with aiohttp.ClientSession() as session: async with session.get(url) as response: return await response.text() async def main(): url = "https://example.com" data = await fetch_data(url) print(data) asyncio.run(main())

In this example, we’re using the aiohttp library to fetch the contents of a webpage. By using async with when creating the ClientSession and the session.get contexts, we ensure that resources are effectively managed throughout their lifetime in an asynchronous environment.

Time and Delays in Async

The time and asyncio.sleep functions are essential components of managing time delays.

In asynchronous programming, using time.sleep is not recommended since it can block the entire execution of your script, causing it to become unresponsive. Instead, you should use asyncio.sleep, which is a non-blocking alternative specifically designed for asynchronous tasks.

To implement a time delay in your async function, simply use the await asyncio.sleep(seconds) syntax, replacing seconds with the desired number of seconds for the delay. For example:

import asyncio async def delay_task(): print("Task started") await asyncio.sleep(2) print("Task completed after 2 seconds") asyncio.run(delay_task())

This will cause a 2-second wait between printing “Task started” and “Task completed after 2 seconds” without blocking the overall execution of your script.

Timeouts can also play a significant role in async programming, preventing tasks from taking up too much time or becoming stuck in an infinite loop.

To set a timeout for an async task, you can use the asyncio.wait_for function:

import asyncio async def long_running_task(): await asyncio.sleep(10) return "Task completed after 10 seconds" async def main(): try: result = await asyncio.wait_for(long_running_task(), timeout=5) print(result) except asyncio.TimeoutError: print("Task took too long to complete") asyncio.run(main())

In this example, the long_running_task takes 10 seconds to complete, but we set a timeout of 5 seconds using asyncio.wait_for. When the task exceeds the 5-second limit, an asyncio.TimeoutError is raised, and the message “Task took too long to complete” is printed.

By understanding and utilizing asyncio.sleep and timeouts in your asynchronous programming, you can create efficient and responsive applications in Python.

Concurrency with AsyncIO

AsyncIO is a powerful library in Python that enables you to write concurrent code. By using the async/await syntax, you can create and manage coroutines, which are lightweight functions that can run concurrently in a single thread or event loop. This approach maximizes efficiency and responsiveness in your applications, especially when dealing with I/O-bound operations.

To start, you’ll need to define your coroutines using the async def keyword. This allows you to use the await keyword within the coroutine to yield control back to the event loop, thus enabling other coroutines to run. You can think of coroutines as tasks that run concurrently within the same event loop.

To manage the execution of coroutines, you’ll use the asyncio.create_task() function. This creates a task object linked to the coroutine which is scheduled and run concurrently with other tasks within the event loop. For example:

import asyncio async def my_coroutine(): print("Hello, World!") task = asyncio.create_task(my_coroutine())

To run multiple tasks concurrently, you can use the asyncio.gather() function. This function takes several tasks as arguments and starts them all concurrently. When all tasks are completed, it returns a list of their results:

import asyncio async def task_one(): await asyncio.sleep(1) return "Task one completed" async def task_two(): await asyncio.sleep(2) return "Task two completed" async def main(): results = await asyncio.gather(task_one(), task_two()) print(results) asyncio.run(main())

Another useful function is asyncio.as_completed(). This function returns an asynchronous iterator that yields coroutines in the order they complete. It can be helpful when you want to process the results of coroutines as soon as they are finished, without waiting for all of them to complete:

import asyncio async def my_task(duration): await asyncio.sleep(duration) return f"Task completed in {duration} seconds" async def main(): tasks = [my_task(1), my_task(3), my_task(2)] for coroutine in asyncio.as_completed(tasks): result = await coroutine print(result) asyncio.run(main())

When working with AsyncIO, remember that your coroutines should always be defined using the async keyword, and any function that calls an asynchronous function should also be asynchronous.

Generators, Futures and Transports

In your journey with Python’s async programming, you will come across key concepts like generators, futures, and transports. Understanding these concepts will help you grasp the core principles of asynchronous programming in Python.

Generators are functions that use the yield keyword to produce a sequence of values without computing them all at once. Instead of returning a single value or a list, a generator can be paused at any point in its execution, only to be resumed later. This is especially useful in async programming as it helps manage resources efficiently.

yield from is a construct that allows you to delegate part of a generator’s operations to another generator, ultimately simplifying the code. When using yield from, you include a subgenerator expression, which enables the parent generator to yield values from the subgenerator.

Futures represent the result of a computation that may not have completed yet. In the context of async programming, a future object essentially acts as a placeholder for the eventual outcome of an asynchronous operation. Their main purpose is to enable the interoperation of low-level callback-based code with high-level async/await code. As a best practice, avoid exposing future objects in user-facing APIs.

Transports are low-level constructs responsible for handling the actual I/O operations. They implement the communication protocol details, allowing you to focus on the high-level async/await code. Asyncio transports provide a streamlined way to manage sockets, buffers, and other low-level I/O related tasks.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the main differences between ‘async for’ and regular ‘for’ loops?

The main difference between async for and regular for loops in Python is that async for allows you to work with asynchronous iterators. This means that you can perform non-blocking I/O operations while iterating, helping to improve your program’s performance and efficiency. Regular for loops are used with synchronous code, where each iteration must complete before the next one begins.

How can async for loop be implemented with list comprehensions?

Unfortunately, async for cannot be directly used with list comprehensions since the syntax does not support asynchronous execution. Instead, when working with asynchronous code, you can use asyncio.gather() alongside a list comprehension to achieve a similar result. This approach allows you to run multiple asynchronous tasks concurrently and collect their results.

For example:

import asyncio async def square(x): await asyncio.sleep(1) return x * x async def main(): numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] results = await asyncio.gather(*(square(num) for num in numbers)) print(results) asyncio.run(main())

What are common patterns to efficiently use async in Python?

To efficiently use async in Python, you can employ the following patterns:

1. Use asyncio library features, such as asyncio.gather(), asyncio.sleep(), and event loops.
2. Write asynchronous functions with the async def syntax and use await to call other asynchronous functions.
3. Use context managers, such as async with, to handle resources that support asynchronous operations.
4. Use async for loops when working with asynchronous iterators to keep your code non-blocking.

How can you create an async range in Python?

To create an async range in Python, you can implement an asynchronous iterator with a custom class that adheres to the async iterator protocol. The custom class should define an __aiter__() method to return itself and implement an __anext__() method that raises StopAsyncIteration when the range is exhausted. Here is an example:

import asyncio class AsyncRange: def __init__(self, start, end): self.start = start self.end = end def __aiter__(self): return self async def __anext__(self): if self.start >= self.end: raise StopAsyncIteration current = self.start self.start += 1 await asyncio.sleep(1) return current 

Are there any examples of creating an async iterator?

Here’s an example of creating an async iterator using a custom class:

import asyncio class AsyncCountdown: def __init__(self, count): self.count = count def __aiter__(self): return self async def __anext__(self): if self.count <= 0: raise StopAsyncIteration value = self.count self.count -= 1 await asyncio.sleep(1) return value async def main(): async for value in AsyncCountdown(5): print(value) asyncio.run(main())

What is the correct way to use ‘async while’ in Python?

To use async while in Python, simply place the await keyword before an asynchronous function or expression within the body of the while loop. By doing so, the loop will execute the asynchronous code non-blocking, allowing other tasks to run concurrently. Here’s an example:

import asyncio async def async_while_example(): count = 5 while count > 0: await asyncio.sleep(1) print(count) count -= 1 asyncio.run(async_while_example())

Recommended: Python Async Function

The post Python Async For: Mastering Asynchronous Iteration in Python appeared first on Be on the Right Side of Change.

This article delves into the diverse methods of extracting values from Python’s Enum class. The Enum class in Python offers a platform to define named constants, known as enumerations.

These enumerations can be accessed through various techniques:

1. By Name/Key: Access the enumeration directly through its designated name or key.
2. By String/String Name: Utilize a string representation of the enumeration’s name, often in conjunction with the getattr function.
3. By Index: Retrieve the enumeration based on its sequential order within the Enum class.
4. By Variable: Leverage a variable containing the enumeration’s name, typically paired with the getattr function.
5. By Default: Obtain the initial or default value of the enumeration, essentially the foremost member defined in the Enum class.

This article underscores the adaptability and multifaceted nature of the Enum class in Python, illustrating the myriad ways one can access the values of its constituents.

Method 1: Python Enum Get Value by Name

Problem Formulation: How can you retrieve the value of an Enum member in Python using its name or key?

In Python, the Enum class allows you to define named enumerations. To get the value of an Enum member using its name (=key), you can directly access it as an attribute of the Enum class.

from enum import Enum
class Color(Enum): RED = 1 GREEN = 2 BLUE = 3
print(Color.RED.value)
# 1

Method 2: Python Enum Get Value by String/String Name

Problem Formulation: How can you retrieve the value of an Enum member in Python using a string representation of its name?

You can use the string representation of an Enum member’s name to access its value by employing the getattr() function.

color_name = "RED"
print(getattr(Color, color_name).value)

Method 3: Python Enum Get Value by Index

Problem Formulation: How can you retrieve the value of an Enum member in Python using its index?

Enum members can be accessed by their order using the list() conversion. The index refers to the order in which members are defined.

print(list(Color)[0].value)
# 1

Method 4: Python Enum Get Value by Variable

Problem Formulation: How can you retrieve the value of an Enum member in Python using a variable that represents its name?

Similar to accessing by string, you can use the getattr() function with a variable holding the Enum member’s name.

var_name = "GREEN"
print(getattr(Color, var_name).value)
# 2

Method 5: Python Enum Get Value by Default

Problem Formulation: How can you retrieve the default value (or the first value) of an Enum in Python?

By converting the Enum to a list and accessing the first element, you can retrieve the default or first value of the Enum.

print(list(Color)[0].value)
# 1

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The post Python Enum Get Value – Five Best Methods appeared first on Be on the Right Side of Change.

To get historical weather data in Python, install the Meteostat library using pip install meteostat or run !pip install meteostat with the exclamation mark prefix ! in a Jupyter Notebook.

If you haven’t already, also install the Matplotlib library using pip install matplotlib.

Then, copy the following code into your programming environment and change the highlighted lines to set your own timeframe (start, end) and GPS location:

# Import Meteostat library and dependencies
from datetime import datetime
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from meteostat import Point, Daily # Set time period
start = datetime(2023, 1, 1)
end = datetime(2023, 12, 31) # Create Point for Stuttgart, Germany
location = Point(48.787399767583295, 9.205803269767616) # Get daily data for 2023
data = Daily(location, start, end)
data = data.fetch() # Plot line chart including average, minimum and maximum temperature
data.plot(y=['tavg', 'tmin', 'tmax'])
plt.show()

This code fetches and visualizes the average, minimum, and maximum temperatures for Stuttgart, Germany, for the entire year of 2023 using the Meteostat library.

Here’s the output:

Here are the three highlighted lines:

• start = datetime(2023, 1, 1): This sets the start date to January 1, 2023.
• end = datetime(2023, 12, 31): This sets the end date to December 31, 2023. Together, these lines define the time period for which we want to fetch the weather data.
• location = Point(48.787399767583295, 9.205803269767616): This creates a geographical point for Stuttgart, Germany using its latitude and longitude GPS coordinates. The Point class is used to represent a specific location on Earth.

You can use Google Maps to copy the GPS location of your desired location:

You can try it yourself in the interactive Jupyter notebook (Google Colab):

If you want to become a Python master, get free cheat sheets, and coding books, check out the free Finxter email academy with 150,000 coders like you:

The post Python Code for Getting Historical Weather Data appeared first on Be on the Right Side of Change.

Selenium is a powerful tool for automation testing, allowing you to interact with web pages and perform various tasks, such as opening URLs, clicking buttons, and filling forms. As a popular open-source framework, Selenium supports various scripting languages, including Python. By using Python and Selenium WebDriver, you can simplify your web testing processes and gain better control over web elements.

To get started with opening URLs using Python and Selenium, you’ll first need to install the Selenium package, as well as the appropriate WebDriver for your browser (such as Chrome or Firefox).

Once you have your test environment set up, the get() method from the Selenium WebDriver allows you to open and fetch URLs, bringing you one step closer to effective automation testing.

Setting Up Environment

Before diving into opening URLs with Python Selenium, you need to set up your environment. This section will guide you through the necessary steps.

Installation of Selenium Library

First, you’ll want to ensure you have Python installed on your system. Check for Python versions by executing python --version. If you don’t have Python, you can download it from the official website.

Next, you’ll need to install the Selenium library. The most convenient method is using pip, the package installer for Python. To install Selenium, simply open the terminal or command prompt, and enter the following pip command:

pip install selenium

This command will download and install the Selenium library for you. Keep in mind that depending on your Python setup, you might want to use pip3 instead of pip.

With the Selenium library installed in your Python environment, you are now ready to start working on your project!

Webdriver Configuration

In this section, we will guide you through configuring Selenium WebDriver to open URLs in different web browsers. We will focus on the Driver Path Specification for various browser drivers such as ChromeDriver, GeckoDriver, and OperaDriver.

Driver Path Specification

Before working with Selenium WebDriver, it is crucial to specify the path of the driver executable for the browser you plan to use in your script. Here’s how you can set up the driver path for some popular browsers:

• ChromeDriver (for Google Chrome): To use ChromeDriver for opening URLs in Google Chrome, you need to have the ChromeDriver executable available on your system. You can download it from the official site and set the executable_path when creating a WebDriver instance:

from selenium import webdriver path = '/path/to/chromedriver.exe'
browser = webdriver.Chrome(executable_path=path)

• GeckoDriver (for Mozilla Firefox): Similarly, for working with Firefox, you need to download the GeckoDriver and provide its path when creating the WebDriver instance:

from selenium import webdriver path = '/path/to/geckodriver.exe'
browser = webdriver.Firefox(executable_path=path)

• OperaDriver (for Opera): If you want to use the Opera browser, you will need to get the OperaDriver executable and specify its path as well:

from selenium import webdriver path = '/path/to/operadriver.exe'
browser = webdriver.Opera(executable_path=path)

Other browsers like Internet Explorer and Safari also require similar driver path specifications. Make sure to download the appropriate driver executable file and specify its path correctly in your script.

Remember that your WebDriver configuration depends on the browser you choose to work with. Always ensure that you have the correct driver executable and path set up for seamless browser automation with Selenium.

Url Navigation with Selenium

When automating web-based testing with Python and Selenium, you’ll often need to navigate to different pages, move back and forth through your browsing history, and fetch the current URL. In this section, we’ll explore how you can achieve these tasks effortlessly.

Loading a Web Page

To get started with opening a website, Selenium provides a convenient get() method. Here’s a basic example of how you can use this method to load Google’s homepage:

from selenium import webdriver driver = webdriver.Chrome()
driver.get("https://www.google.com")

The get() method receives a target URL as an argument and opens it in the browser window. The WebDriver returns control to your script once the page is fully loaded.

Page Navigation

While testing various functionalities, you might need to navigate back and forth through your browsing history. With Selenium, it’s easy to move between pages using the driver.back() and driver.forward() methods.

To go back to the previous page, use the following code:

driver.back()

This command simulates the action of clicking the browser’s back button.

If you want to move forward in your browsing history, you can do so by executing the following command:

driver.forward()

This action is equivalent to pressing the browser’s forward button.

In addition to navigating pages, you might want to fetch the current URL during your test. To do this, use the driver.current_url attribute. This attribute returns the URL of the webpage you are currently on. It can be useful to verify if your navigation steps or redirect chains are working as expected.

Here’s an example of how to print the current URL:

print(driver.current_url)

By leveraging Selenium’s get(), driver.back(), driver.forward(), and driver.current_url, you can easily navigate websites, switch between pages, and check your current location to ensure your tests are running smoothly.

Web Element Interaction

In this section, we will discuss how to interact with web elements using Python Selenium. We will focus on locating and manipulating elements to perform various actions on a webpage.

Locating Elements

To interact with a web element, you first need to locate it. Python Selenium provides several methods to find elements on a web page, like selecting them by their id, tag name, or other attributes.

For example, to find an element by its id, you can use the find_element_by_id() method:

element = driver.find_element_by_id("element_id")

You can also locate an element by its tag name using the find_element_by_tag_name() method:

element = driver.find_element_by_tag_name("element_tag")

Manipulating Elements

Once you have located an element, you can perform various actions like clicking, sending keys, or even copying its content. Let’s explore some commonly used methods for web element manipulation.

• click(): This method allows you to simulate a left-click on a web element. For example:

element.click()

• send_keys(): To enter text into an input field, you can use the send_keys() method. For instance:

element.send_keys("your text here")

Additionally, you can use the Keys class to simulate special key presses, like the Enter key:

from selenium.webdriver.common.keys import Keys
element.send_keys(Keys.ENTER)

• right_click: To simulate a right-click on an element, you can use the ActionChains class. For example:

from selenium.webdriver import ActionChains
actions = ActionChains(driver)
actions.context_click(element).perform()

• copy: To copy the content of a web element, you can use the get_attribute() method to obtain the desired attribute value. For example, if you want to copy the page title, you can do the following:

title_element = driver.find_element_by_tag_name("title")
title = title_element.get_attribute("innerHTML")

These are some of the basic techniques to interact with web elements using Python Selenium. By combining these methods, you can create powerful automations to navigate and manipulate web pages according to your needs.

Testing and Debugging

Screenshot Feature

One useful feature for testing and debugging with Selenium WebDriver is the ability to take screenshots of the current web page. This helps you understand what’s happening in your automated browser tests visually. To do this, use the save_screenshot() method provided by the WebDriver instance.

For example:

from selenium import webdriver driver = webdriver.Chrome()
driver.get("https://www.example.com")
driver.save_screenshot("screenshot.png")
driver.quit()

This code snippet demonstrates how to open a specific URL and save a screenshot of the entire page using Python Selenium. The screenshot will be saved in your local directory with the specified filename.

Error Handling and Transfer

Another essential aspect of testing and debugging with Selenium is error handling. You might encounter various types of errors while running your Python Selenium scripts, such as timing issues, element not found, or unexpected browser behavior.

To handle these errors effectively, it’s crucial to implement proper exception handling in your code. This allows you to monitor the behavior of your script and transfer the control to the next process smoothly. For example, you may use try and except blocks to handle exceptions related to the WebDriver.

from selenium import webdriver
from selenium.common.exceptions import WebDriverException try: driver = webdriver.Chrome() driver.get("https://www.example.com") # Perform your WebDriver actions here
except WebDriverException as e: print(f"An error occurred: {e}")
finally: driver.quit()

In this example, the code attempts to open a URL with Selenium. If an error occurs during the process, the except block catches the exception and prints the error message, making it easier for you to identify the problem and take corrective measures in your script.

By utilizing these features, you can improve the accuracy and reliability of your Python Selenium scripts, ensuring smoother testing and debugging experiences. Remember to consult the official documentation on Selenium WebDriver for more in-depth information and best practices.

Closing a Session

When working with Python Selenium, it’s essential to close the browser session once you have completed your automation tasks. Properly closing a session ensures that the browser’s resources are released and prevents issues with lingering browser instances. One way to close a session is by using the driver.quit() method.

Driver.quit

The driver.quit() method is a key function to manage and end a WebDriver session in Python Selenium. It gracefully terminates the browser instances associated with a WebDriver, closing all associated windows and tabs. This method also releases the resources used by Selenium, ensuring a clean closure of the session.

To use driver.quit(), simply call it at the end of your Selenium script, like this:

driver.quit()

Keep in mind that the main difference between driver.quit() and the close() method is the scope. While driver.quit() closes the entire browser session, including all windows and tabs, driver.close() terminates only the current active window. If you need to close a specific window without ending the entire session, you can use the close() method instead.

Related Web Scraping Tools

When working with Python and Selenium for web scraping, it’s essential to be aware of other related tools that can enhance and simplify your scraping process. One such popular tool is BeautifulSoup.

Recommended: Basketball Statistics – Page Scraping Using Python and BeautifulSoup

BeautifulSoup is a Python library used for parsing HTML and XML documents, making it easier to extract information from web pages. It’s widely used in conjunction with web scraping, as it allows you to traverse and search the structure of the websites you’re scraping. It’s a great complement to Selenium, as it can help extract data once Selenium has loaded and interacted with the required web components.

Another essential aspect of web scraping is handling AJAX and JavaScript content on web pages. Selenium provides an excellent way to interact with these dynamic elements, making it indispensable for various web scraping tasks.

When using Selenium, consider integrating other tools and libraries that can augment the scraping process. Some of these tools include:

• Scrapy: A popular Python framework for web scraping which provides an integrated environment for developers. Scrapy can be combined with Selenium to create powerful web scrapers that handle dynamic content.
• Requests-HTML: An HTML parsing library that extends the well-known Requests library, enabling simplified extraction of data from HTML and XML content.
• Pandas: A powerful data manipulation library for Python that allows easy handling and manipulation of extracted data, including tasks such as filtering, sorting and exporting to various file formats.

In summary, while using Python, Selenium, and BeautifulSoup for web scraping can prove to be invaluable tools for your projects, remember to explore other libraries and frameworks that can enhance your workflow and efficiency. These additional tools can make the extraction and manipulation of data a seamlessly integrated process, empowering you to create efficient and reliable web scraping solutions.

Additional Selenium Features

As you venture into the world of Selenium for testing web applications, you’ll discover its numerous features and capabilities. One of the key advantages of Selenium is that it enables you to test on various browsers and platforms. Here we discuss some other remarkable features that you may find helpful in your journey.

Selenium offers the Remote WebDriver that allows you to run tests on real devices and browsers located on remote machines. This is particularly helpful when you need to test your application on multiple browsers, platforms, and versions.

Selenium provides expected_conditions to help you explicitly wait for certain conditions to occur before continuing with your test, ensuring a smoother and more reliable testing experience.

Working with location data is made easier by Selenium, allowing the tester to emulate specific geo-locations or manage geolocation permissions of the web browser during the testing process.

Customizing your web browser is possible with Selenium through the use of ChromeOptions. ChromeOptions enable you to set browser preferences, manage extensions, and even control the behavior of your Chrome browser instances.

Advanced Selenium Topics

When diving deeper into Selenium automation, you’ll encounter a number of advanced topics that enhance your knowledge and capabilities. Mastering these techniques will help you create more effective test scripts and efficiently automate web application testing.

An essential part of advanced Selenium usage is familiarizing yourself with Selenium Python bindings. This library allows you to interact with Selenium’s WebDriver API, making the process of writing and executing Selenium scripts in Python even smoother. Taking advantage of these bindings can help streamline your entire workflow, making the development of complex test scripts more manageable.

Understanding the underlying wire protocol is another crucial aspect of advanced Selenium proficiency. WebDriver’s wire protocol enables browsers to be controlled remotely using your Selenium scripts. This protocol allows you to efficiently connect various components of your Selenium infrastructure, including the test scripts, WebDriver API, and browser-specific drivers.

As you progress in your Selenium journey, learning from comprehensive Selenium Python tutorials can provide valuable insights and real-world examples. These tutorials can illuminate the nuances of Selenium Python scripts, including how to locate web elements, perform actions such as clicking or typing, and handle browser navigation.

Advanced concepts also include building custom modules that extend Selenium’s functionality to suit your specific requirements. By developing and importing your own Python modules, you can create reusable functions and streamline the overall test automation process. Leveraging these custom modules not only improves the maintainability of your test scripts but also can lead to significant time savings.

When considering advanced techniques, it is vital to stay up-to-date with the latest advancements in Selenium’s API. By staying informed about new releases and improvements, you can ensure that your test automation is leveraging the most reliable and efficient tools available.

In summary, mastering advanced Selenium topics such as the Selenium Python bindings, wire protocol, comprehensive tutorials, custom modules, and staying current with the Selenium API will greatly enhance your test automation capabilities and proficiency. As you continue to build your expertise, your efficiency and effectiveness in automating web application testing will undoubtedly improve.

Comparison with Other Testing Tools

When diving into test automation using Python Selenium, it’s essential to be aware of other testing tools and frameworks that offer alternative options for automated testing. This section helps you understand key alternatives and how they differ from Selenium with Python.

One popular alternative is the Selenium WebDriver with C#. It offers similar functionality as Python Selenium but benefits from C# syntax, making it a reliable choice for existing .NET developers. Additionally, there is a large community and extensive resources available for learning and implementing Selenium C# projects.

JavaScript test automation frameworks such as Protractor and WebDriverIO are increasingly popular due to the rise of JavaScript as a dominant programming language. These frameworks allow testing in a more asynchronous manner and provide better integration with popular JavaScript front-end libraries like Angular and React.

Another alternative is using Ruby with Selenium or the Capybara framework. Capybara is a high-level testing framework that abstracts away browser navigation, making it easier for testers to write clean, efficient tests. It is suited for testing web applications built using the Ruby on Rails framework.

In terms of infrastructure, a Cloud Selenium Grid can be highly advantageous. Cloud-based testing allows you to run tests on multiple browsers and platforms simultaneously without maintaining the testing infrastructure locally. This can lead to cost savings and scalability, particularly when testing extensively across numerous operating systems and devices.

When choosing a testing framework, it’s essential to consider your preferred programming languages and existing tools in your development environment. Some popular frameworks include pytest for Python, NUnit for C#, Mocha for JavaScript, and RSpec for Ruby.

Lastly, let’s touch upon Linux as the operating system for running Selenium tests. Linux is a robust and reliable platform for test automation, providing stability and flexibility in configuring environments. Many CI/CD pipelines use Linux-based systems for running automated tests, making it an essential platform to support while exploring test automation with Selenium and other tools.

Frequently Asked Questions

How to navigate to a website using Python Selenium?

To navigate to a website using Python Selenium, you need to first install the Selenium library, then import the necessary modules, create a webdriver instance, and use the get() method to open the desired URL. Remember to close the browser window after your operations with the close() method. Here’s an example:

from selenium import webdriver driver = webdriver.Chrome()
driver.get("https://www.example.com")
# Your operations
driver.close()

What is the syntax for opening a URL in Chrome with Selenium?

The syntax for opening a URL in Chrome using Selenium is quite simple. After importing the necessary modules, create an instance of webdriver.Chrome(), and use the get() method to open the URL. The example below demonstrates this:

from selenium import webdriver driver = webdriver.Chrome()
driver.get("https://www.example.com")
# Your operations
driver.close()

How does Selenium get the URL in Python?

Selenium uses the get() method to fetch and open a URL within the chosen browser. This method is called on the webdriver object you’ve created when initializing Selenium. Here’s a quick example:

from selenium import webdriver driver = webdriver.Firefox()
driver.get("https://www.example.com")
# Your operations
driver.close()

What’s the process to open a website with Selenium and Python?

The process to open a website with Selenium and Python involves a series of steps, including importing the necessary modules, setting up a webdriver instance, navigating to the desired website using the get() method, performing operations, and closing the browser. Here’s a simple example:

from selenium import webdriver driver = webdriver.Chrome()
driver.get("https://www.example.com")
# Your operations
driver.close()

How does Selenium open URL in different browsers?

Selenium can open URLs in different browsers by instantiating a specific webdriver object for each browser. Here are a few examples of opening a URL in different browsers:

# For Google Chrome
from selenium import webdriver chrome_driver = webdriver.Chrome()
chrome_driver.get("https://www.example.com")
# Your operations
chrome_driver.close()

# For Firefox
from selenium import webdriver firefox_driver = webdriver.Firefox()
firefox_driver.get("https://www.example.com")
# Your operations
firefox_driver.close()

Are there any differences between Python Selenium and C# Selenium for opening URLs?

The core functionality of Selenium remains the same across different programming languages, but the syntax and libraries used may differ. For example, in C#, you need to use the OpenQA.Selenium namespace instead of Python’s selenium library. Here’s a comparison of opening a URL in Chrome using Python Selenium and C# Selenium:

Python Selenium:

from selenium import webdriver driver = webdriver.Chrome()
driver.get("https://www.example.com")
# Your operations
driver.close()

C# Selenium:

using OpenQA.Selenium;
using OpenQA.Selenium.Chrome; var driver = new ChromeDriver();
driver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://www.example.com");
// Your operations
driver.Quit();

Recommended: Is Web Scraping Legal?

The post How to Open a URL in Python Selenium appeared first on Be on the Right Side of Change.

You can engage with LLMs in three ways:

1. Hosted: Using platforms hosted by AI experts like OpenAI.
2. Embedded: Integrating chatbots into tools like Google Docs or Office365.
3. Self-hosting, either by building an LLM or tweaking open-source ones like Alpaca or Vicuna.

If you’re using a hosted or embedded solution, you’ll sacrifice privacy and security because your chat will be sent to an external server doing inference, i.e., asking the model to give an output. But if the data is on the external server, they have complete control of your data.

In this article, I’ll give you the six best LLMs preserving your privacy and security by allowing you to download them and run on your own machine. Let’s get started!

Model 1: Llama 2

Meta (formerly Facebook) has released Llama 2, a new large language model (LLM) that is trained on 40% more training data and has twice the context length, compared to its predecessor Llama.

Llama 2 is open-source so researchers and hobbyist can build their own applications on top of it. If you download the model and self-host it on your computer or your internal servers, you’ll get a 100% private and relatively secure LLM experience – no data shared with external parties such as Facebook!

Llama 2 is trained on a massive dataset of text and code. Here’s a detailed benchmark, I highlighted the best Llama-2 model in red and the best models for each test in yellow. You can see that it outperforms even sophisticated models such as MPT and Falcon:

It even outperforms GPT-4 according to human raters and even as rated by GPT-4 itself:

Here are some initial references in case you’re interested:

• Application: You can download and play with the model by completing a questionnaire here.
• Model Card: The model card is available on GitHub.
• Demo: You can try chatting with Llama 2 on Huggingface, however, this isn’t private and secure because it’s an online external model hosting service without encryption.

Note: Only if you download the powerful model to your computer or your internal servers can you achieve privacy and security!

Recommended: 6 Easiest Ways to Get Started with Llama2: Meta’s Open AI Model

Model 2: MPT Series (MPT-7B and MPT-30B)

MPT-30B (former: MPT-7B) is a large language model (LLM) standard developed by MosaicML, for open-source, commercially usable LLMs and a groundbreaking innovation in natural language processing technology.

It is private and secure!

“The size of MPT-30B was also specifically chosen to make it easy to deploy on a single GPU—either 1xA100-80GB in 16-bit precision or 1xA100-40GB in 8-bit precision.” — MosaicML

With nearly 7 billion parameters, MPT-7B offers impressive performance and has been trained on a diverse dataset of 1 trillion tokens, including text and code. MPT-30B significantly improve on MPT-7B, so the model performance even outperforms original GPT-3!

As a part of the MosaicPretrainedTransformer (MPT) family, it utilizes a modified transformer architecture, optimized for efficient training and inference, setting a new standard for open-source, commercially usable language models.

Some interesting resources:

• Non-Private Demo (MPT-30B): https://huggingface.co/spaces/mosaicml/mpt-30b-chat
• Non-Private Demo (MPT-7B): https://huggingface.co/mosaicml/mpt-7b
• MPT-7B: https://www.mosaicml.com/blog/mpt-7b
• MPT-30B: https://huggingface.co/mosaicml/mpt-30b
• GitHub: https://github.com/mosaicml/llm-foundry/

Model 3: Alpaca.cpp

Alpaca.cpp offers a unique opportunity to run a ChatGPT-like model directly on your local device, ensuring enhanced privacy and security. By leveraging the LLaMA foundation model, it integrates the open reproduction of Stanford Alpaca, which fine-tunes the base model to follow instructions, similar to the RLHF used in ChatGPT’s training.

The process to get started is straightforward. Users can download the appropriate zip file for their operating system, followed by the model weights.

Once these are placed in the same directory, the chat interface can be initiated with a simple command. The underlying weights are derived from the alpaca-lora’s published fine-tunes, which are then converted back into a PyTorch checkpoint and quantized using llama.cpp.

Note: This project is a collaborative effort, combining the expertise and contributions from Facebook’s LLaMA, Stanford Alpaca, alpaca-lora, and llama.cpp by various developers, showcasing the power of open-source collaboration.

Resources:

• GitHub: https://github.com/antimatter15/alpaca.cpp
• Original Alpaca: https://crfm.stanford.edu/2023/03/13/alpaca.html
• Stanford GitHub: https://github.com/tatsu-lab/stanford_alpaca

Model 4: Falcon-40B-Instruct (Not Falcon-180B, Yet!)

The Falcon-40B-Instruct, masterfully crafted by TII, is not just a technological marvel with its impressive 40 billion parameters but also a beacon of privacy and security. As a causal decoder-only model, it’s fine-tuned on a mixture of Baize and stands as a testament to the potential of local processing.

Running the Falcon-40B locally ensures that user data never leaves the device, thereby significantly enhancing user privacy and data security. This local processing capability, combined with its top-tier performance that surpasses other models like LLaMA and StableLM, makes it a prime choice for those who prioritize both efficiency and confidentiality.

• For those who are privacy-conscious and looking to delve into chat or instruction-based tasks, Falcon-40B-Instruct is a perfect fit.
• While it’s optimized for chat/instruction tasks, you might consider the base Falcon-40B model if you want to do further fine-tuning.
• And if you have significant computational constraints (e.g., on a Raspberry Pi) but still wanting to maintain data privacy, the Falcon-7B offers a compact yet secure alternative.

The integration with the transformers library ensures not only ease of use but also a secure environment for text generation, keeping user interactions confidential. Users can confidently utilize Falcon-40B-Instruct, knowing their data remains private and shielded from potential external threats.

So to summarize, you can choose among those three options, ordered by performance and overhead (low to high):

• Falcon-7B (Small Overhead)
• Falcon-40B (Medium Overhead) Recommended
• Falcon-180B (High Overhead, cannot yet run locally –> No Privacy!)

“It is the best open-access model currently available, and one of the best model overall. Falcon-180B outperforms LLaMA-2, StableLM, RedPajama, MPT, etc. See the OpenLLM Leaderboard.” — Falcon

You can currently try the Falcon-180B Demo here — it’s fun!

Model 5: Vicuna

What sets Vicuna apart is its ability to write code even though it is very concise and can run on your single-GPU machine (GitHub), which is less common in other open-source LLM chatbots . This unique feature, along with its more than 90% quality rate, makes it stand out among ChatGPT alternatives.

Reference: Original Website

Don’t worry about compatibility, as Vicuna is available for use on your local machine or with cloud services like Microsoft’s Azure, ensuring you can access and collaborate on your writing projects wherever you are.

With Vicuna, you can expect the AI chatbot to deliver text completion tasks such as poetry, stories, and other content similar to what you would find on ChatGPT or Youchat. Thanks to its user-friendly interface and robust feature set, you’ll likely find this open-source alternative quite valuable.

Model 6: h2oGPT

h2oGPT is an open-source generative AI framework building on many models discussed before (e.g., Llama 2) that provides you a user-friendly way to run your own LLMs while preserving data ownership. Thus, it’s privacy friendly and more secure than most solutions on the market.

H2o.ai, like most other organizations in the space, is a for-profit organization so let’s see how it develops during the next couple of years. For now, it’s a fun little helper tool and it’s free and open-source!

• Demo: https://gpt.h2o.ai/
• GitHub: https://github.com/h2oai/h2ogpt
• Website: https://h2o.ai/

5 Common Security and Privacy Risks with LLMs

Risk #1: Firstly, there’s the enigma of Dark Data Misuse & Discovery.

Imagine LLMs as voracious readers, consuming every piece of information they come across. This includes the mysterious dark data lurking in files, emails, and forgotten database corners. The danger? Exposing private data, intellectual property from former employees, and even the company’s deepest secrets. The shadows of dark Personal Identifiable Information (PII) can cast long-lasting financial and reputational scars. What’s more, LLMs have the uncanny ability to connect the dots between dark data and public information, opening the floodgates for potential breaches and leaks. And if that wasn’t enough, the murky waters of data poisoning and biases can arise, especially when businesses are in the dark about the data feeding their LLMs.

Risk #2: Next, we encounter the specter of Biased Outputs.

LLMs, for all their intelligence, can sometimes wear tinted glasses. Especially in areas that tread on thin ice like hiring practices, customer service, and healthcare. The culprit often lies in the training data. If the data leans heavily towards a particular race, gender, or any other category, the LLM might inadvertently tilt that way too. And if you’re sourcing your LLM from a third party, you’re essentially navigating blindfolded, unaware of any lurking biases.

Risk #3: It gets even murkier with Explainability & Observability Challenges.

Think of public LLMs as magicians with a limited set of tricks. Tracing their outputs back to the original inputs can be like trying to figure out how the rabbit got into the hat. Some LLMs even have a penchant for fiction, inventing sources and making observability a Herculean task. However, there’s a silver lining for custom LLMs. If businesses play their cards right, they can weave in observability threads during the training phase.

Risk #4: But the plot thickens with Privacy Rights & Auto-Inferences.

As LLMs sift through data, they’re like detectives connecting the dots, often inferring personal details from seemingly unrelated data points. Businesses, therefore, walk a tightrope, ensuring they have the green light to make these Sherlock-esque deductions. And with the ever-evolving landscape of privacy rights, keeping track is not just a Herculean task but a Sisyphean one.

Risk #5: Lastly, we arrive at the conundrum of Unclear Data Stewardships.

In the current scenario, asking LLMs to “unlearn” data is like asking the sea to give back its water. This makes data management a puzzle, with every piece of sensitive data adding to a business’s legal baggage. The beacon of hope? Empowering security teams to classify, automate, and filter data, ensuring that every piece of information has a clear purpose and scope.

Recommended: 30 Creative AutoGPT Use Cases to Make Money Online

Prompt Engineering with Python and OpenAI

You can check out the whole course on OpenAI Prompt Engineering using Python on the Finxter academy. We cover topics such as:

• Embeddings
• Semantic search
• Web scraping
• Query embeddings
• Movie recommendation
• Sentiment analysis

Academy: Prompt Engineering with Python and OpenAI

The post Six Best Private & Secure LLMs in 2023 appeared first on Be on the Right Side of Change.

Developing a Python application can be a rewarding experience, but sharing your creation with others might seem daunting, especially if your users are not familiar with Python environments.

One solution to this dilemma is converting your Python script into an executable (.exe) file with all its dependencies included, making it simple for others to run your application on their Windows machines without needing to install Python or manage packages.

Understanding EXE and Dependencies

When working with Python, you may want to create an executable file that can run on systems that do not have Python installed. This process involves converting your .py file to a Windows executable, or .exe, format. Additionally, it’s essential to include all dependencies to ensure that your program will run smoothly on any computer.

An executable file, or simply an executable, allows users to run your program without needing to worry about installing the appropriate version of Python or any other necessary libraries. A standalone executable can be especially helpful when distributing your application, as it eliminates the need for end-users to install additional components.

In Python, creating an executable with all dependencies means that the resulting file will have everything it needs for your program to function correctly.

Dependencies are external libraries or modules that your program relies on to function. For instance, if your Python script uses the requests library to make HTTP calls, your program won’t work on a system that does not have this library installed. Including all dependencies in your executable ensures that your users won’t encounter errors due to missing components.

To convert your Python script into an executable with all dependencies, you can use tools like PyInstaller. PyInstaller bundles your Python script and its dependencies into a single file or folder, making it easier to distribute your application. Once you have generated your .exe file, anyone with a Windows system will be able to run your program without needing to install Python or additional libraries.

Keep in mind that when creating an executable with dependencies, the resulting file might be larger than the original script. This is because all the necessary libraries are bundled directly within the .exe. However, this is a small price to pay for the convenience of a standalone application that users can run without additional setup.

Yes, PyInstaller Works for All Operating Systems

When developing and distributing Python applications, it is critical to consider the operating system (OS) you are working on. Python runs on various OS like Windows, macOS, and Linux. Each OS handles application distribution and dependencies differently, so understanding their nuances is essential for successful Python-to-EXE conversions.

On Windows, the most popular method to package your Python application is by using PyInstaller. It helps convert your script into an executable file, bundling all the required dependencies. Users can easily run the resulting file without additional installations. This tool also provides support for other OS such as macOS and Linux.

macOS users can use the same PyInstaller mentioned above, following a similar process as they would on Windows. However, it’s crucial to note that the created executable file will be specific to macOS and not compatible with other OS without re-compilation. In other words, make sure to create separate executable files for each target OS.

For Linux systems, again, PyInstaller is an excellent choice. The usage and dependency bundling process is akin to Windows and macOS, ensuring a smooth experience for your application users. Keep in mind the Python interpreter included in the bundle will be specific to the OS and the word size.

5 Best Tools for Creating an Executable in Python

When working with Python projects, you may need to convert your scripts into executable files with all dependencies included. There are several tools available for this purpose, each with its unique features and advantages. This section will briefly introduce you to five popular tools: PyInstaller, py2exe, cx_Freeze, Nuitka, and auto-py-to-exe.

Python to Exe 1: PyInstaller is a popular choice due to its ease of use and extensive documentation. To install it, simply run pip install pyinstaller. Once installed, you can create an executable using the command pyinstaller yourprogram.py. For a single-file executable, you can use the --onefile flag, as in pyinstaller --onefile yourprogram.py.

Python to Exe 2: py2exe is another option, primarily used for Windows. It requires a slightly more involved setup, as you’ll need to create a setup.py script to configure your project. However, it gives you more control over the final executable’s configuration. To use py2exe, first install it using pip install py2exe, then create your setup.py and execute it with Python to generate the EXE file.

Python to Exe 3: cx_Freeze is a cross-platform tool that works with both Python 2 and Python 3. It also utilizes a configuration script (setup.py) and is installed with pip install cx_Freeze. After installation, you can create an executable by executing the setup.py file with Python.

Python to Exe 4: Nuitka is unique in that it compiles your Python code into C++ for increased performance. This can be beneficial for resource-intensive applications or when speed is critical. Installation is done via pip install Nuitka. To create your executable, use the command nuitka --recurse-all --standalone yourprogram.py.

Python to Exe 5: Finally, auto-py-to-exe provides a graphical user interface for PyInstaller, simplifying the process for those who prefer a more visual approach. Install it with pip install auto-py-to-exe, then run the command auto-py-to-exe to launch the GUI.

Package and Module Management

When working with Python, managing packages and modules is crucial to ensure your code runs smoothly and efficiently. Python provides a powerful package manager called pip, which allows you to install, update, and remove packages necessary for your project. As you build your Python application, it is essential to keep track of the dependencies and their versions, often stored in a requirements.txt file.

To manage your dependencies more effectively, it is recommended to use a dependency manager like Pipenv, which simplifies the process for collaborative projects by automatically creating and managing a virtual environment and a Pipfile. This tool provides an improved and higher-level workflow compared to using pip and requirements.txt.

Python modules are files containing Python code, usually with a .py extension. They define functions, classes, and variables that can be utilized in other Python scripts. Modules are organized in site-packages – the directory where third-party libraries and packages are installed. A well-structured codebase will make use of these modules, organizing related functionalities and allowing for easy maintenance and updates.

When you need to package your Python project into a standalone executable, tools like PyInstaller can make the process easier. This application packages Python programs into stand-alone executables, compatible with Windows, macOS, Linux, and other platforms. It includes all dependencies and required files within the executable, ensuring your program can be distributed and run on machines without Python installed.

To provide a smooth experience for users, it is crucial to properly manage hidden imports. Hidden imports are modules that PyInstaller may not automatically detect when bundling your application. To ensure these modules are included, you can modify the PyInstaller command using the --hidden-import option or list the hidden imports in your PyInstaller spec file.

By mastering package and module management in your Python projects, you’ll ensure that your applications run efficiently and are easily maintainable. Utilizing the proper tools and following best practices will enable you to manage dependencies seamlessly and create robust, standalone executables.

Setting Up the Environment

Before diving into converting your Python code into an executable with all dependencies, it’s important to set up a proper development environment. This allows for a smooth workflow and ensures that your application runs correctly.

First, you should have a solid text editor or integrated development environment (IDE) for writing your Python code. There are many popular text editors such as Visual Studio Code, Sublime Text, or PyCharm that can help you with this.

Next, you will need to install Python on your machine. Visit the official Python website and download the appropriate version for your operating system. Make sure to add Python to your system PATH during the installation process, so it is accessible from the command prompt or terminal.

Once Python is installed, it’s a good idea to create a virtual environment for your project. This isolates your project’s dependencies from other Python projects on your system. To create a virtual environment, you’ll need to install the virtualenv package with the command:

pip install virtualenv

Then, navigate to your project folder and run the following command to create a new virtual environment:

python -m venv <virtual-environment-name>

Replace <virtual-environment-name> with an appropriate name for your environment, typically something like env. To activate your virtual environment, use one of the following commands, depending on your operating system:

• For Windows: env\Scripts\activate.bat
• For macOS/Linux: source env/bin/activate

With your virtual environment activated, you can now install the necessary dependencies for your project. Create a setup.py file in your project folder and define the required packages and their versions. Then, to install the dependencies, simply run:

pip install -r setup.py

All your dependencies should now be installed within your virtual environment and ready to use in your Python code.

Finally, when you’re ready to convert your Python code into an executable, you will generate the executable in a dist folder. This folder should contain your .exe file alongside any necessary dependencies, ensuring your application runs smoothly on the target system.

Python to EXE Conversion Process

Converting your Python code to an executable file with all its dependencies can be a simple and straightforward process. When you want to create a standalone executable from your Python application, you can use a tool like PyInstaller that packages your code and its dependencies into a single EXE file.

First, you need to install PyInstaller by running the following command in your command prompt or terminal:

pip install pyinstaller

After installing PyInstaller, navigate to your Python script directory using the cd command. Then use the following command to create an executable:

pyinstaller yourprogram.py

This command compiles your Python code and bundles the required dependencies into the executable. The result will be a folder named dist in the same directory as your Python script, containing the EXE file alongside the necessary libraries.

To customize the output executable, such as specifying an icon or including additional data files, you can create a spec file. A spec file contains configuration options that dictate how PyInstaller packages your Python application. To create a spec file, use the following command:

pyinstaller --onefile --specpath your_spec_directory -i your_icon.ico yourprogram.py

This command generates a spec file in the specified directory, with the provided icon for the executable. You can then edit the spec file to include additional settings, such as the NSIS installer options or custom hooks for including third-party libraries.

Once you’ve configured your spec file, you can use it to create the final executable by running:

pyinstaller yourprogram.spec

Potential Errors and Testing

When converting Python scripts to executable files along with all their dependencies, you may encounter various errors during the process. To help you prevent, identify, and resolve these issues, here are some pointers on potential errors and testing strategies.

One common error you might face is missing dependencies when converting your .py file to a .exe file. To avoid this, ensure that all required packages and libraries are installed and properly functioning before initiating the conversion process. Use tools like pyinstaller to help package your script with necessary dependencies.

Runtime errors are another category of issues that might emerge after creating your executable. Since the executable will often be run on machines without Python, you need to verify that the generated binary works correctly. Test your newly created .exe file on various systems to catch and resolve any compatibility issues. Remember to cover different operating systems, system architectures, and hardware configurations in your testing process.

Note: As you work with large dependencies such as OpenCV, BeautifulSoup4, and Selenium, bear in mind that the size of the final executable might increase significantly. This might lead to longer load times for your application, possible memory issues, and challenges when distributing the executable to users. Optimize your code and dependencies where possible, and consider using compression tools to reduce the file size.

Finally, it’s important to conduct thorough testing to ensure that your executable works as expected. Carry out end-to-end testing on different systems and evaluate every aspect of the application’s functionality.

Additionally, perform performance testing to measure the application’s responsiveness and resource usage, allowing you to pinpoint any bottlenecks and optimization opportunities.

If your Python EXE doesn’t work, everybody will hate your app.

Distribution and Documentation

When it comes to distributing your Python application as an executable with all its dependencies, using tools like PyInstaller can greatly simplify the process. This tool helps you create a standalone executable file without the need for end-users to install Python or any other dependencies.

To get started with PyInstaller, you will want to ensure your project is well-organized and conveniently use Python libraries. If you haven’t already, create a virtual environment for your project and install all the necessary dependencies using pip install. This will make it easier for the tool to package everything your application needs.

Documentation plays a crucial role in making your application easy to use and understand. Be sure to provide clear and concise instructions on using your executable, including any available command-line options or configuration settings. Remember to address any potential issues or common troubleshooting steps that users might encounter.

As you’re writing your documentation, keep in mind that your users may not be experts in Python. Avoid using jargon, and opt for simple, straightforward language to explain any technical aspects of your application. Where possible, provide examples and illustrations to help users visualize the processes.

In addition to written instructions, it’s a good idea to create a repository for your project, including readme files and guides that demonstrate how to set up, run, and modify your program. Platforms like GitHub or GitLab are excellent choices because they allow you to store, manage, and share your project files and documentation easily.

Advanced Python to EXE Techniques

One common issue faced when converting Python applications to EXE files is handling large libraries such as NumPy and Pandas. Using a tool like pyinstaller can help package these dependencies along with your application. Install and use pyinstaller by running:

pip install pyinstaller
pyinstaller yourprogram.py

This will generate an executable file with all dependencies in the “dist” folder.

For Python projects that involve a graphical user interface (GUI) application, If using a library like Tkinter or PyQt, ensure that you properly configure the main() function within your script. This will allow the application to launch properly after being converted into an EXE. Also, consider using a dedicated tool such as auto-py-to-exe that provides a visual interface for packaging your GUI application.

If your Python project relies on C extensions, you might want to look into Cython. It’s a superset of the Python programming language that compiles Python scripts into C, which then can be linked into an executable. Cython can help improve performance and also provide better protection for your source code. Cython can be a suitable option in case you’re considering bundling your application with C or C++ libraries.

When converting Python applications that interact with other programming languages, such as Java, it is important to include the required dependencies and interfaces. Tools like Jython and JPype can be employed for Java integration, but ensure you properly package these dependencies during the conversion process.

Frequently Asked Questions

How can I create an exe file from a Python script with all dependencies included?

To create an exe file from a Python script with all dependencies included, you can use a tool such as PyInstaller. PyInstaller packages your Python script and its dependencies into a single executable, making it easy to share and run on systems without Python installed. Simply install PyInstaller using pip, and then run the command pyinstaller --onefile your_script.py.

What is the best method to convert a Python project to a standalone executable in Windows?

The best method to convert a Python project to a standalone executable in Windows is using tools like PyInstaller or cx_Freeze. Both tools are capable of generating standalone executables, and they offer different options and customizations depending on your needs. Make sure to read their respective documentations to choose the one that suits your project best.

How do I use PyInstaller effectively to create an exe from a Python file?

To use PyInstaller effectively, first install it by running pip install pyinstaller. Then, you can create an exe by running pyinstaller --onefile your_script.py in the command line. For more advanced usage, like hiding the console window, use options like --noconsole. You can also create a configuration file for PyInstaller, known as a .spec file, to apply more customization options like icon files or additional data. Read the PyInstaller documentation for more details about these options.

Is there a way to make a Python file executable and auto-install required packages?

Although making a Python file executable and auto-installing required packages isn’t directly possible, you can use PyInstaller to bundle your script and its dependencies into a single executable. Alternatively, you can use pipenv or conda to create a virtual environment that includes all dependencies, making it easier for others to run your script.

How does one convert a multi-file Python project to a single executable?

Converting a multi-file Python project to a single executable is similar to converting a single script. Tools like PyInstaller and cx_Freeze automatically detect and include imports from other files in your project. Run the command pyinstaller --onefile your_main_script.py or follow the cx_Freeze documentation to create a standalone executable that includes all files in your project.

Are there alternative tools to PyInstaller for creating standalone Python executables?

Yes, there are alternative tools to PyInstaller for creating standalone Python executables. Some popular alternatives include cx_Freeze, Nuitka, and py2exe. Each tool has its own features, options, and limitations. Consider the specific requirements of your project when choosing the right tool for you.

Recommended: Top 20 Profitable Ways to Make Six Figures Online as a Developer (2023)

The post Python to EXE with All Dependencies appeared first on Be on the Right Side of Change.

Ever found yourself scratching your head, trying to figure out why someone would invest in ether (ETH) instead of just using it on the Ethereum network? Let’s look at Fidelity’s recent report on Ethereum’s Investment Thesis.

Ethereum vs Ether

Ethereum vs. Ether: Picture Ethereum as a bustling digital city, and ether (ETH) as the currency people use within that city. While the city’s infrastructure might be booming, it doesn’t always mean the currency’s value is skyrocketing. Similarly, a digital network and its native token don’t always rise and fall together.

The relationship between a digital asset network and its native token is intricate, and their successes don’t always mirror each other. Some networks can offer significant utility, processing numerous intricate transactions daily, without necessarily enhancing the value for their token holders.

Conversely, some networks exhibit a more direct connection between the network’s activity and the value of its token. This dynamic is often referred to as “tokenomics,” a contraction of “token economics.” Tokenomics delves into how a network or application’s structure can generate economic benefits for its token holders.

Over recent years, the Ethereum network has experienced transformative changes that have reshaped its tokenomics. One notable change was the decision to burn a segment of transaction fees, termed the base fee, introduced in August 2021 through the Ethereum Improvement Proposal 1559 (EIP-1559).

Recommended: MEV Burn Ethereum: Greatest Supply Shock in ETH History?

When ether is burned, it’s essentially removed from existence, meaning every transaction on Ethereum reduces the total ether in circulation. Moreover, the shift from proof-of-work to proof-of-stake in September 2022 reduced the rate at which new tokens are introduced and introduced staking.

This staking process permits participants to earn returns in the form of tips, new token issuance, and maximal extractable value (MEV). These pivotal updates have redefined ether’s tokenomics, prompting a reevaluation of the bond between Ethereum and its native token, ether.

Understanding Tokenomics: The Value Dynamics of Ether

Ether’s value is intrinsically tied to its tokenomics, which can be broken down into three primary mechanisms that convert usage into value. Here’s how it works:

1. Transaction Fees: When users transact on Ethereum, they incur two types of fees: a base fee and a priority fee (also known as a tip). Additionally, transactions can create value opportunities for others through MEV (Maximum Extractable Value). This represents the maximum value a validator can gain by manipulating the sequence or selection of transactions during block creation.
2. Base Fee Dynamics: The base fee, which is paid in ether, is “burned” or permanently removed from circulation once it’s included in a block (a collection of transactions). This act of burning reduces the overall ether supply, creating a deflationary effect.
3. Priority Fee and MEV: The priority fee, or tip, is a reward given to validators, the entities or individuals tasked with updating the blockchain and ensuring its integrity. When validators create blocks, they’re motivated to prioritize transactions offering higher tips since this becomes a primary source of their earnings. Additionally, MEV opportunities, often arising from arbitrage, are typically introduced by users. In the current ecosystem, the majority of this MEV value is channeled to validators through competitive MEV markets.

These value-generating mechanisms can be likened to various revenue streams for the network. The burning of the base fee acts as a deflationary force, benefiting existing token holders by potentially increasing the value of their holdings.

On the other hand, the priority fee and MEV serve as compensation for validators, rewarding them for their crucial role in the network. In essence, as platform activity rises, so does the amount of ether burned and the rewards for validators, illustrating the dynamic relationship between usage and value in Ether’s tokenomics.

Investment Perspective: Ether’s Monetary Potential

Bitcoin is often framed as an emerging form of digital money. This naturally prompts the question: Can ether be seen in the same light?

While some might argue in favor, ether faces more challenges than bitcoin in its journey to be universally recognized as money.

Although ether shares many monetary characteristics with bitcoin and traditional currencies, its scarcity model and historical trajectory differ. Unlike bitcoin’s fixed supply, ether’s supply is dynamic, influenced by factors like validator count and the amount burned.

Additionally, Ethereum’s frequent network upgrades mean its code is constantly evolving, requiring time and scrutiny to establish a robust track record. This continuous evolution, while beneficial for innovation, can be a hurdle in building unwavering trust among stakeholders.

Also, many would argue that Ether is more security-like than Bitcoin in that it is more controlled by a few highly interested parties than Bitcoin. The Ethereum foundation (EF) is controlled by a handful of people. If the EF proposes protocol upgrades, even hard forks, these upgrades have a high chance of going through. The decentralization in terms of number of nodes and distribution of nodes globally is much less than Bitcoin.

Bitcoin, for many, represents the pinnacle of digital money due to its security, decentralization, and sound monetary principles. Any attempt to “better” it would involve compromises. However, the dominance of bitcoin as a digital monetary standard doesn’t preclude the existence of other forms of digital money tailored for specific markets, use cases, or communities.

Ethereum, for instance, offers functionalities not present in Bitcoin (at least on the base layer, although many functionalities, such as smart contracts and executing complex transactions, are already being implemented on Bitcoin layer 2s).

Mainstream applications built on Ethereum could naturally boost demand for ether, positioning it as a potential alternative form of money. Several real-world integrations with Ethereum are already evident:

• MakerDAO, an Ethereum-based project, invested in $500 million worth of Treasuries and bonds.
• A U.S. house was sold on Ethereum as a non-fungible token (NFT).
• The European Investment Bank issued bonds directly on the blockchain.
• Franklin Templeton’s money market fund leveraged Ethereum via Polygon for transaction processing and share ownership recording.

While these integrations are promising, widespread adoption of Ethereum for mainstream transactions might still be years away, requiring enhancements, regulatory clarity, and public education. Until then, ether might remain a specialized form of money.

In a way, Ethereum currently doesn’t have use cases beyond trading digital assets as can be seen in the current “Burn Leaderboard” on Ultrasound Money:

I’m not a huge proponent of “trading applications” because I believe it goes more in the direction of a zero-sum game. Where’s the value of swapping tokens on Uniswap or NFTs on OpenSea? Yet, I understand you could use similar arguments for much of the “real world” industry with banks, online marketplaces, and financial services providers.

Regulation is a significant concern for Ethereum’s future. Given that many major centralized exchanges holding and staking ether are U.S.-based, regulatory decisions in this jurisdiction could profoundly impact Ethereum’s valuation and overall health. Recent regulatory actions and shutdowns of crypto services in the U.S. underscore the gravity of this risk.

Ether’s Dual Monetary Roles: Store of Value and Medium of Exchange

Store of Value: A reliable store of value demands scarcity. While Bitcoin’s fixed supply of 21 million is well-established, ether’s issuance is more fluid, influenced by factors like validator activity and burn rates.

Future Ethereum upgrades could further complicate predictions about ether’s supply. Despite these complexities, current structures ensure ether’s annual inflation remains below 1.5%, assuming no transactions occur. With transaction revenue, Ethereum can even remain deflationary, meaning more ETH is burned than paid out to stakers each year.

However, the potential for future changes to ether’s supply dynamics contrasts sharply with Bitcoin’s steadfast supply narrative.

Means of Payment: Ether is already used for payments, especially for digital assets. Seemingly, Ethereum’s faster transaction finality compared to Bitcoin makes it an appealing payment option.

In reality, however, all payments will be made on second and third layers, such as Bitcoin lightning or Ethereum Polygon, which reduces practical transaction costs for even small payments to almost zero.

As more physical and digital assets integrate with blockchain ecosystems, ether, along with other tokens and stablecoins, could become more prevalent for payments, especially if transaction fees decrease due to the increasing infrastructure of the network application ecosystems.

Valuing Ether Based on Demand

Ether’s value could rise with increased Ethereum network adoption due to basic supply-demand principles. As Ethereum scales, understanding where new users originate and their sought-after use cases can provide insights into potential value trajectories.

Current data suggests that Ethereum’s base layer continues to attract consistent value, even as layer 2 solutions gain traction. However, ether’s value might be more influenced by network usage than mere asset holding.

In a recent article, I analyzed Bitcoin’s price based on Metcalfe’s Law and network effects and found there’s a positive relationship:

Recommended: Want Exploding Bitcoin Prices North of $500,000 per BTC? “Grow N” Says Metcalfe’s Law

A similar study has been done by Fidelity that found more evidence of Bitcoin’s price scaling exponentially with the number of addresses than Ethereum’s price. But the relationship is still there for both monetary networks (source):

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